четверг, 15 марта 2018 г.

Oneplus mobile price in india 3 classical empires - Punto canal vivo oneplus 5t official video what does the fox year rates 10

A History: Dictionary. com’s Word of the Year 10




oneplus mobile price in india 3 classical empires



oneplus mobile price in india 3 classical empires



oneplus mobile price in india 3 classical empires



With this in mind, if we take into consideration Kellers research and these include, name, logo and slogan. Typically this does not include independent overseas territories of countries in the region.



'Jewel' - 36 Video Result(s)




The majority of biblical archeologists translate a set of hieroglyphs as "Israel," the first instance of the name in the record. The Williams Electronics arcade games Robotron, Joust, Sinistar, inthe Commodore Amiga featured a custom graphics chip, with a blitter unit accelerating bitmap manipulation, line draw, and area fill functions. For perspective, such a device at 15 inch screen size would have to more than four Full HD screens One plus one mobile price in india and features A virtual keyboard before iOS 7 on an iPad. Electrically passive adapters allow a card to fit and function in a device built for a larger card.



'Jewel' - 100 News Result(s)




Motorola was once owner of a trademark for the flip phone. In Canadian English, North America may be used to refer to the United States, alternatively, usage sometimes includes Greenland and Mexico, as well as offshore islands 7. The leftmost plug has three conductors; the others have two.







Write a Review on Age Of Empires II: The Conquerors




Unlike the OnePlus One, which shipped a single model worldwide, the 2 will ship different models per region [32] like most other manufacturersas a consequence of this, 4G LTE connectivity may not be possible outside the region the phone was bought, due to different LTE standards. So the rotor possesses three degrees of freedom and its axis possesses two. In Canadian English, North America may be used to refer to the United States, alternatively, usage sometimes includes Greenland and Mexico, as well as offshore islands. Mont Blanc in the Alps is the highest peak in the EU. Customers can purchase the phone without the need of an invite, on 25 Decemberthe court reversed the sales ban, noting that YU and OnePlus were within different market segments—low-end and high-end devices respectively. A random-access memory device allows data items to be read or written in almost the same amount of time irrespective of the location of data inside the memory. InS3 Graphics introduced the S3 86C, which its designers named after the Porsche as an implication of the performance increase it promised.







100 seconden oneplus mobile price in india 3 classical empires




11.02.2018 - Canada — Canada is a country in the northern half of North America. It is a number that is a quantitative measure of lens speed. Smartphones with p FullHD display have been available on the market sinceas of the end ofit is the standard for mid-range to high-end smartphones and many of the flagship devices of used even higher resolutions. Historically the term specifically referred to a device composed of multiple cells. Most of the present structure, however, dates to the Ming dynasty.









Windows oneplus mobile price in india 3 classical empires




11.03.2018 - Gyroscope — A gyroscope is a spinning wheel or disc in which the axis of rotation is free to assume any orientation by itself. Telia - branded Samsung LTE modem. The UAEs oil reserves are the seventh-largest in the world while its natural gas reserves are the worlds seventeenth-largest, Sheikh Zayed, ruler of Abu Dhabi and the first President of the UAE, oversaw the development of the Emirates and steered oil revenues into healthcare, education and infrastructure. Singapore's free port trade was at Singapore River for years. Active noise control — Active noise control, also known as noise cancellation, or active noise reduction, is a method for reducing unwanted sound by the addition of a second sound specifically designed to cancel the first. With this in mind, if we take into consideration Kellers research and these include, name, logo and slogan.









Zero turn oneplus mobile price in india 3 classical empires mac download




31.01.2018 - Alternatively, the transducer emitting the cancellation signal may be located at the location where sound attenuation is wanted and this requires a much lower power level for cancellation but is effective only for a single user. From the time of Herodotus a minority of geographers have rejected the three-continent system on the grounds there is no or is no substantial physical separation between them 6. This inner gimbal has two degrees of rotational freedom, the axle of the spinning wheel defines the spin axis. Phablet — The phablet is a class of mobile computing devices designed to combine or straddle the size format of smartphones and tablets. Some know these process as thermosensation, proximity sensors can have a high reliability and long functional life because of the absence of mechanical parts and lack of physical contact between sensor and the sensed object.









Biblia oneplus mobile price in india 3 classical empires windows




27.01.2018 - One hertz simply means one cycle per second, Hz means one hundred cycles per second, and so on. The so-called Paleo-Indian period is taken to have lasted until about 10, years ago, the Classic stage spans roughly the 6th to 13th centuries. Mobile operating system — A mobile operating system is an operating system for smartphones, tablets, or other mobile devices. The constitution declares Islam the state religion while allowing freedom of religion for non-Muslims, the government system is closely modelled on the Westminster parliamentary system and the legal system is based on common law. Employees of the Emeryville studio were given opportunities to other positions within Maxis. EDVACone of the first stored-program computers.











Bit oneplus mobile price in india 3 classical empires libras una




So-called mobile operating systems, or even only smartphones running them, Mobile operating systems, are now, as of late, the most used kind, with traditional desktop OS, now a minority used kind, see usage share of operating systems.



However, variations occur in popularity by regions, while desktop-minority also applies on some days in e. By the end of, over million smartphones were sold with Research has shown that these systems may contain a range of security vulnerabilities permitting malicious base stations to gain high levels of control over the mobile device.



Mobile operating system milestones mirror the development of mobile phones and smartphones, — The first smartphone, the IBM Simon, has a touchscreen, email, and PDA features. Android operating system — Android is a mobile operating system developed by Google, based on the Linux kernel and designed primarily for touchscreen mobile devices such as smartphones and tablets.



Variants of Android are also used on notebooks, game consoles, digital cameras, beginning with the first commercial Android device in September, the operating system has gone through multiple major releases, with the current version being 7.



Android applications can be downloaded from the Google Play store, which features over 2. In September, Android had 1. The success of Android has made it a target for patent, Android Inc.



Rubin described the Android project as tremendous potential in developing smarter mobile devices that are aware of its owners location. The early intentions of the company were to develop an operating system for digital cameras.



Despite the past accomplishments of the founders and early employees, Android Inc. In July, Google acquired Android Inc. Not much was known about Android at the time, with Rubin having only stated that they were making software for mobile phones, at Google, the team led by Rubin developed a mobile device platform powered by the Linux kernel.



Google marketed the platform to handset makers and carriers on the promise of providing a flexible, upgradeable system, Google had lined up a series of hardware components and software partners and signaled to carriers that it was open to various degrees of cooperation.



Speculation about Googles intention to enter the communications market continued to build through December In September, InformationWeek covered an Evalueserve study reporting that Google had filed several patent applications in the area of mobile telephony, the first commercially available smartphone running Android was the HTC Dream, also known as T-Mobile G1, announced on September 23, Since, Android has seen numerous updates which have improved the operating system, adding new features.



Each major release is named in order after a dessert or sugary treat, with the first few Android versions being called Cupcake, Donut, Eclair. In, Google launched its Nexus series of devices, a lineup in which Google partnered with different device manufacturers to produce new devices and introduce new Android versions.



System on a chip — A system on a chip or system on chip is an integrated circuit that integrates all components of a computer or other electronic systems.



It may contain digital, analog, mixed-signal, and often radio-frequency functions—all on a single substrate, SoCs are very common in the mobile computing market because of their low power-consumption.



A typical application is in the area of embedded systems, the contrast with a microcontroller, SoC integrates microcontroller with advanced peripherals like graphics processing unit, Wi-Fi module, or coprocessor.



As long as we remember that the SoC does not necessarily contain built-in memory, in general, we can distinguish three types of SoC. When it is not feasible to construct a SoC for a particular application, in large volumes, SoC is believed to be more cost-effective than SiP since it increases the yield of the fabrication and because its packaging is simpler.



Another option, as seen for example in cell phones, is package on package stacking during board assembly. The SoC includes processors and numerous digital peripherals, and comes in a ball grid package with lower and upper connections.



The lower balls connect to the board and various peripherals, with the balls in a ring holding the memory buses used to access NAND flash. Memory packages could come from multiple vendors, DMA controllers route data directly between external interfaces and memory, bypassing the processor core and thereby increasing the data throughput of the SoC.



A SoC consists of both the hardware, described above, and the controlling the microcontroller, microprocessor or DSP cores, peripherals. The design flow for a SoC aims to develop hardware and software in parallel.



Most SoCs are developed from pre-qualified hardware blocks for the elements described above. Of particular importance are the protocol stacks that drive industry-standard interfaces like USB, the hardware blocks are put together using CAD tools, the software modules are integrated using a software-development environment.



Once the architecture of the SoC has been defined, any new elements are written in an abstract language termed RTL which defines the circuit behaviour. These elements are connected together in the same RTL language to create the full SoC design, chips are verified for logical correctness before being sent to foundry.



This process is called functional verification and it accounts for a significant portion of the time, with the growing complexity of chips, hardware verification languages like SystemVerilog, SystemC, e, and OpenVera are being used.



Bugs found in the stage are reported to the designer. Qualcomm — Qualcomm is an American multinational semiconductor and telecommunications equipment company that designs and markets wireless telecommunications products and services.



It derives most of its revenue from chipmaking and the bulk of its profit from patent licensing businesses, the company headquarters are located in San Diego, California, United States, and has worldwide locations.



In, Qualcomm began the design of the first CDMA-based cellular base station and this work began as a study contract from AirTouch which was facing a shortage of cellular capacity in Los Angeles.



Two years later Qualcomm began to manufacture CDMA cell phones, base stations, the initial base stations were not reliable and the technology was licensed wholly to Nortel in return for their work in improving the base station switching.



The naming rights belong to Qualcomm until In, Qualcomm sold its base station business to Ericsson, the company was now focused on developing and licensing wireless technologies and selling ASICs that implement them.



Steve Mollenkopf was promoted to president and chief operating officer of the company, mollenkopfs appointment as CEO was announced on December 13, and took effect on March 4, He succeeded Paul E.



However, surprised by the release of the bit Apple A7 in September, furthermore, Qualcomm was facing anti-trust investigations in China, the European Union, and the United States.



The combination of pressures caused a significant fall in Qualcomms profits. In July, the company cut 4, jobs or about 15 percent of its 31, current workforce due to decline of sales, executive management knew this was coming so they came up with a plan to retain its employees.



However, instead of paying reasonable salary, executive management used this plan as a justification to give themselves a big payout first and then lay off employees later.



In December, Qualcomm Inc. Central processing unit — The computer industry has used the term central processing unit at least since the early s. The form, design and implementation of CPUs have changed over the course of their history, most modern CPUs are microprocessors, meaning they are contained on a single integrated circuit chip.



An IC that contains a CPU may also contain memory, peripheral interfaces, some computers employ a multi-core processor, which is a single chip containing two or more CPUs called cores, in that context, one can speak of such single chips as sockets.



Array processors or vector processors have multiple processors that operate in parallel, there also exists the concept of virtual CPUs which are an abstraction of dynamical aggregated computational resources.



Since the term CPU is generally defined as a device for software execution, the idea of a stored-program computer was already present in the design of J. EDVAC was designed to perform a number of instructions of various types.



Significantly, the programs written for EDVAC were to be stored in high-speed computer memory rather than specified by the wiring of the computer. Early CPUs were custom designs used as part of a larger, however, this method of designing custom CPUs for a particular application has largely given way to the development of multi-purpose processors produced in large quantities.



This standardization began in the era of discrete transistor mainframes and minicomputers and has accelerated with the popularization of the integrated circuit.



The IC has allowed increasingly complex CPUs to be designed and manufactured to tolerances on the order of nanometers, both the miniaturization and standardization of CPUs have increased the presence of digital devices in modern life far beyond the limited application of dedicated computing machines.



Modern microprocessors appear in electronic devices ranging from automobiles to cellphones, the so-called Harvard architecture of the Harvard Mark I, which was completed before EDVAC, also utilized a stored-program design using punched paper tape rather than electronic memory.



Relays and vacuum tubes were used as switching elements, a useful computer requires thousands or tens of thousands of switching devices. The overall speed of a system is dependent on the speed of the switches, tube computers like EDVAC tended to average eight hours between failures, whereas relay computers like the Harvard Mark I failed very rarely.



In the end, tube-based CPUs became dominant because the significant speed advantages afforded generally outweighed the reliability problems, most of these early synchronous CPUs ran at low clock rates compared to modern microelectronic designs.



Clock signal frequencies ranging from kHz to 4 MHz were very common at this time, the design complexity of CPUs increased as various technologies facilitated building smaller and more reliable electronic devices.



Multi-core processor — A multi-core processor is a single computing component with two or more independent actual processing units, which are units that read and execute program instructions.



The instructions are ordinary CPU instructions, but the multiple cores can run multiple instructions at the same time, manufacturers typically integrate the cores onto a single integrated circuit die, or onto multiple dies in a single chip package.



A multi-core processor implements multiprocessing in a physical package. Designers may couple cores in a multi-core device tightly or loosely, for example, cores may or may not share caches, and they may implement message passing or shared-memory inter-core communication methods.



Common network topologies to interconnect cores include bus, ring, two-dimensional mesh, homogeneous multi-core systems include only identical cores, heterogeneous multi-core systems have cores that are not identical.



Just as with single-processor systems, cores in multi-core systems may implement architectures such as VLIW, superscalar, Multi-core processors are widely used across many application domains, including general-purpose, embedded, network, digital signal processing, and graphics.



The improvement in performance gained by the use of a multi-core processor depends very much on the algorithms used. In particular, possible gains are limited by the fraction of the software that can run in parallel simultaneously on multiple cores, most applications, however, are not accelerated so much unless programmers invest a prohibitive amount of effort in re-factoring the whole problem.



The parallelization of software is a significant ongoing topic of research, the terms multi-core and dual-core most commonly refer to some sort of central processing unit, but are sometimes also applied to digital signal processors and system on a chip.



This article uses the terms multi-core and dual-core for CPUs manufactured on the integrated circuit. In contrast to systems, the term multi-CPU refers to multiple physically separate processing-units.



The terms many-core and massively multi-core are sometimes used to describe multi-core architectures with a high number of cores. Some systems use many soft microprocessor cores placed on a single FPGA, each core can be considered a semiconductor intellectual property core as well as a CPU core.



While manufacturing technology improves, reducing the size of individual gates and these physical limitations can cause significant heat dissipation and data synchronization problems.



Various other methods are used to improve CPU performance, some instruction-level parallelism methods such as superscalar pipelining are suitable for many applications, but are inefficient for others that contain difficult-to-predict code.



Many applications are better suited to thread-level parallelism methods, and multiple independent CPUs are commonly used to increase a systems overall TLP, a combination of increased available space and the demand for increased TLP led to the development of multi-core CPUs.



Several business motives drive the development of multi-core architectures, for decades, it was possible to improve performance of a CPU by shrinking the area of the integrated circuit, which reduced the cost per device on the IC.



Alternatively, for the circuit area, more transistors could be used in the design. Hertz — The hertz is the unit of frequency in the International System of Units and is defined as one cycle per second.



It is named for Heinrich Rudolf Hertz, the first person to provide proof of the existence of electromagnetic waves. Hertz are commonly expressed in SI multiples kilohertz, megahertz, gigahertz, kilo means thousand, mega meaning million, giga meaning billion and tera for trillion.



Some of the units most common uses are in the description of waves and musical tones, particularly those used in radio-. It is also used to describe the speeds at which computers, the hertz is equivalent to cycles per second, i.



One hertz simply means one cycle per second, Hz means one hundred cycles per second, and so on. The unit may be applied to any periodic event—for example, a clock might be said to tick at 1 Hz, the rate of aperiodic or stochastic events occur is expressed in reciprocal second or inverse second in general or, the specific case of radioactive decay, becquerels.



This SI unit is named after Heinrich Hertz, as with every International System of Units unit named for a person, the first letter of its symbol is upper case. Note that degree Celsius conforms to this rule because the d is lowercase.



The name was established by the International Electrotechnical Commission in, the term cycles per second was largely replaced by hertz by the s. One hobby magazine, Electronics Illustrated, declared their intention to stick with the traditional kc.



Humans perceive frequency of waves as pitch. Each musical note corresponds to a frequency which can be measured in hertz. An infants ear is able to perceive frequencies ranging from 20 Hz to 20, Hz, the range of ultrasound, infrasound and other physical vibrations such as molecular and atomic vibrations extends from a few femtoHz into the terahertz range and beyond.



Electromagnetic radiation is described by its frequency—the number of oscillations of the perpendicular electric and magnetic fields per second—expressed in hertz. Radio frequency radiation is measured in kilohertz, megahertz, or gigahertz.



Graphics processing unit — GPUs are used in embedded systems, mobile phones, personal computers, workstations, and game consoles. Arcade system boards have been using specialized graphics chips since the s, in early video game hardware, the RAM for frame buffers was expensive, so video chips composited data together as the display was being scanned out on the monitor.



Fujitsus MB video shifter was used to accelerate the drawing of sprite graphics for various s arcade games from Taito and Midway, such as Gun Fight, Sea Wolf, the Namco Galaxian arcade system in used specialized graphics hardware supporting RGB color, multi-colored sprites and tilemap backgrounds.



In the home market, the Atari in used a video shifter called the Television Interface Adaptor, machine code subroutines could be triggered on scan lines by setting a bit on a display list instruction.



ANTIC also supported smooth vertical and horizontal scrolling independent of the CPU and it became one of the best known of what were known as graphics processing units in the s.



The Williams Electronics arcade games Robotron,, Joust, Sinistar, in, the Commodore Amiga featured a custom graphics chip, with a blitter unit accelerating bitmap manipulation, line draw, and area fill functions.



Also included is a coprocessor with its own instruction set, capable of manipulating graphics hardware registers in sync with the video beam. In, Texas Instruments released the TMS, the first microprocessor with on-chip graphics capabilities and it could run general-purpose code, but it had a very graphics-oriented instruction set.



In, this chip would become the basis of the Texas Instruments Graphics Architecture Windows accelerator cards, in, the IBM graphics system was released as one of the first video cards for IBM PC compatibles to implement fixed-function 2D primitives in electronic hardware.



Fujitsu later competed with the FM Towns computer, released in with support for a full 16,, color palette, in, the first dedicated polygonal 3D graphics boards were introduced in arcades with the Namco System 21 and Taito Air System.



In, S3 Graphics introduced the S3 86C, which its designers named after the Porsche as an implication of the performance increase it promised. The 86C spawned a host of imitators, by, all major PC graphics chip makers had added 2D acceleration support to their chips.



By this time, fixed-function Windows accelerators had surpassed expensive general-purpose graphics coprocessors in Windows performance, throughout the s, 2D GUI acceleration continued to evolve.



Gigabyte — The gigabyte is a multiple of the unit byte for digital information. The prefix giga means in the International System of Units, the unit symbol for the gigabyte is GB. However, the term is used in some fields of computer science and information technology to denote bytes.



The use of gigabyte may thus be ambiguous, to address this ambiguity, the International System of Quantities standardizes the binary prefixes which denote a series of integer powers of With these prefixes, a module that is labeled as having the size 1GB has one gibibyte of storage capacity.



The term gigabyte is commonly used to mean either bytes or bytes, the latter binary usage originated as compromise technical jargon for byte multiples that needed to be expressed in a power of 2, but lacked a convenient name.



As is approximately, roughly corresponding to SI multiples, in the International Electrotechnical Commission published standards for binary prefixes, requiring that the gigabyte strictly denote bytes and gibibyte denote bytes.



The file manager of Mac OS X version The binary definition uses powers of the base 2, as is the principle of binary computers. This usage is widely promulgated by some operating systems, such as Microsoft Windows in reference to computer memory and this definition is synonymous with the unambiguous unit gibibyte.



Since the first disk drive, the IBM, disk drive manufacturers expressed hard drive capacities using decimal prefixes, with the advent of gigabyte-range drive capacities, manufacturers based most consumer hard drive capacities in certain size classes expressed in decimal gigabytes, such as GB.



The exact capacity of a given model is usually slightly larger than the class designation. Practically all manufacturers of disk drives and flash-memory disk devices continue to define one gigabyte as bytes.



Some operating systems such as OS X express hard drive capacity or file size using decimal multipliers and this discrepancy causes confusion, as a disk with an advertised capacity of, for example, GB might be reported by the operating system as GB, meaning GiB.



As storage sizes increase and larger units are used, these differences even more pronounced. Some legal challenges have been waged over this confusion such as a lawsuit against drive manufacturer Western Digital, Western Digital settled the challenge and added explicit disclaimers to products that the usable capacity may differ from the advertised capacity.



Random-access memory — Random-access memory is a form of computer data storage which stores frequently used program instructions to increase the general speed of a system. A random-access memory device allows data items to be read or written in almost the same amount of time irrespective of the location of data inside the memory.



RAM contains multiplexing and demultiplexing circuitry, to connect the lines to the addressed storage for reading or writing the entry. Usually more than one bit of storage is accessed by the same address, in todays technology, random-access memory takes the form of integrated circuits.



RAM is normally associated with types of memory, where stored information is lost if power is removed. Other types of non-volatile memories exist that allow access for read operations. Integrated-circuit RAM chips came into the market in the early s, with the first commercially available DRAM chip, early computers used relays, mechanical counters or delay lines for main memory functions.



Ultrasonic delay lines could only reproduce data in the order it was written, drum memory could be expanded at relatively low cost but efficient retrieval of memory items required knowledge of the physical layout of the drum to optimize speed.



Latches built out of vacuum tube triodes, and later, out of transistors, were used for smaller and faster memories such as registers. Such registers were relatively large and too costly to use for large amounts of data, the first practical form of random-access memory was the Williams tube starting in It stored data as electrically charged spots on the face of a cathode ray tube, since the electron beam of the CRT could read and write the spots on the tube in any order, memory was random access.



The capacity of the Williams tube was a few hundred to around a thousand bits, but it was smaller, faster. In fact, rather than the Williams tube memory being designed for the SSEM, magnetic-core memory was invented in and developed up until the mids.



It became a form of random-access memory, relying on an array of magnetized rings. By changing the sense of each rings magnetization, data could be stored with one bit stored per ring, since every ring had a combination of address wires to select and read or write it, access to any memory location in any sequence was possible.



Magnetic core memory was the form of memory system until displaced by solid-state memory in integrated circuits. Data was stored in the capacitance of each transistor, and had to be periodically refreshed every few milliseconds before the charge could leak away.



MMC originally used a 1-bit serial interface. MMC can be used in devices that can use Secure Digital cards. Typically, an MMC is used as a medium for a portable device. For example, a camera would use an MMC for storing image files.



With an MMC reader, a user could copy the pictures taken with the camera off to his or her computer. Modern computers, both laptops and desktops, often have SD slots, which can additionally read MMCs if the operating system drivers can, MMCs are available in sizes up to and including GB.



They are used in almost every context in which cards are used, like cellular phones, digital audio players, digital cameras. While few companies build MMC slots into devices today, the card is still widely used in the industry as a primary means of integrated storage in portable devices.



This technology is a standard available to any company wanting to develop based on it. There is no royalty charged for devices which host an MMC, a membership with the MMC Association must be purchased in order to manufacture the cards themselves.



As of July, the latest specifications version 4. A highly detailed version is available on-line that contains information for writing an MMC driver. As of February, the latest specifications version 5.



Subscriber identity module — It is also possible to store contact information on many SIM cards. SIM cards can also be used in satellite phones, the SIM circuit is part of the function of a Universal Integrated Circuit Card physical smart card, which is usually made of PVC with embedded contacts and semiconductors.



The operating voltage of the majority of SIM cards launched before was 5 V. In order to allow interoperability of the applications, Java Card was taken as the solution of choice by ETSI, additional standards and specifications of interest are maintained by GlobalPlatform.



This is used by operators to store information on preferred networks. Battery electricity — An electric battery is a device consisting of one or more electrochemical cells with external connections provided to power electrical devices such as flashlights, smartphones, and electric cars.



When a battery is supplying power, its positive terminal is the cathode. The terminal marked negative is the source of electrons that when connected to a circuit will flow. It is the movement of ions within the battery which allows current to flow out of the battery to perform work.



Historically the term specifically referred to a device composed of multiple cells. Primary batteries are used once and discarded, the materials are irreversibly changed during discharge.



Common examples are the battery used for flashlights and a multitude of portable electronic devices. Secondary batteries can be discharged and recharged multiple times using mains power from a wall socket, examples include the lead-acid batteries used in vehicles and lithium-ion batteries used for portable electronics such as laptops and smartphones.



Batteries have much lower energy than common fuels such as gasoline. This is somewhat offset by the efficiency of electric motors in producing mechanical work.



The usage of battery to describe a group of electrical devices dates to Benjamin Franklin, alessandro Volta built and described the first electrochemical battery, the voltaic pile, in This was a stack of copper and zinc plates, separated by brine-soaked paper disks, Volta did not understand that the voltage was due to chemical reactions.



Although early batteries were of value for experimental purposes, in practice their voltages fluctuated. It consisted of a pot filled with a copper sulfate solution, in which was immersed an unglazed earthenware container filled with sulfuric acid.



These wet cells used liquid electrolytes, which were prone to leakage and spillage if not handled correctly, many used glass jars to hold their components, which made them fragile and potentially dangerous.



These characteristics made wet cells unsuitable for portable appliances, near the end of the nineteenth century, the invention of dry cell batteries, which replaced the liquid electrolyte with a paste, made portable electrical devices practical.



Batteries convert chemical energy directly to electrical energy, a battery consists of some number of voltaic cells. Ampere hour — The commonly seen milliampere hour is one-thousandth of an ampere hour.



The ampere hour is used in measurements of electrochemical systems such as electroplating. A milliampere second is a unit of measure used in X-ray imaging, diagnostic imaging and this quantity is proportional to the total X-ray energy produced by a given X-ray tube operated at a particular voltage.



The same total dose can be delivered in different time periods depending on the X-ray tube current, an ampere hour is not a unit of energy. In a battery system, for example, accurate calculation of the energy delivered requires integration of the power delivered over the discharge interval, generally, the battery voltage varies during discharge, an average value or nominal value may be used to approximate the integration of power.



The Faraday constant is the charge on one mole of electrons and it is used in electrochemical calculations. An AA size dry cell has a capacity of about 2 to 3 ampere hours, automotive car batteries vary in capacity but a large automobile propelled by an internal combustion engine would have about a 50 ampere hour battery capacity.



Since one ampere hour can produce 0. Lithium polymer battery — A lithium polymer battery, or more correctly lithium-ion polymer battery, is a rechargeable battery of lithium-ion technology using a polymer electrolyte instead of the more common liquid electrolyte.



High conductivity semisolid polymers form the electrolyte for LiPo cells are being used in tablet computers, after that, other packaging forms evolved, including the pouch format now also called LiPo.



Lithium polymer cells have evolved from lithium-ion and lithium-metal batteries. The primary difference is instead of using a lithium-salt electrolyte held in an organic solvent.



A typical cell has four components, positive electrode, negative electrode, separator. The separator itself may be a polymer, such as a film of polyethylene or polypropylene, thus, even when the cell has a liquid electrolyte.



In addition to this, the electrode can be further decomposed in three parts, the lithium-transition-metal-oxide, a conductive additive, and a polymer binder of poly. The negative electrode material may have the three parts, only with carbon replacing the lithium-metal-oxide.



To prevent the electrodes from touching each other directly, a separator is in between which allows only the ions and not the electrode particles to migrate from one side to the other. For LiPo battery packs with cells connected in series, a specialised charger may monitor the charge on a per-cell basis so that all cells are brought to the state of charge.



Unlike lithium-ion cylindrical and prismatic cells, which have a metal case, LiPo cells have a flexible, foil-type case. LiPo cells provide manufacturers with compelling advantages and they can easily produce batteries of almost any desired shape.



Test reports warn of the risk of fire when the batteries are not used in accordance with the instructions, as of mid, LiPo packs of 1. Microphone — A microphone, colloquially nicknamed mic or mike, is a transducer that converts sound into an electrical signal.



Several different types of microphone are in use, which employ different methods to convert the air pressure variations of a wave to an electrical signal. Microphones typically need to be connected to a preamplifier before the signal can be recorded or reproduced, in order to speak to larger groups of people, a need arose to increase the volume of the human voice.



The earliest devices used to achieve this were acoustic megaphones, some of the first examples, from fifth century BC Greece, were theater masks with horn-shaped mouth openings that acoustically amplified the voice of actors in amphitheatres.



In, the English physicist Robert Hooke was the first to experiment with an other than air with the invention of the lovers telephone made of stretched wire with a cup attached at each end.



German inventor Johann Philipp Reis designed an early sound transmitter that used a strip attached to a vibrating membrane that would produce intermittent current. Better results were achieved with the transmitter design in Scottish-American Alexander Graham Bells telephone of — the diaphragm was attached to a conductive rod in an acid solution.



These systems, however, gave a poor sound quality. The first microphone that enabled proper voice telephony was the carbon microphone and this was independently developed by David Edward Hughes in England and Emile Berliner and Thomas Edison in the US.



Although Edison was awarded the first patent in mid, Hughes had demonstrated his working device in front of many witnesses some years earlier, the carbon microphone is the direct prototype of todays microphones and was critical in the development of telephony, broadcasting and the recording industries.



Thomas Edison refined the carbon microphone into his carbon-button transmitter of and this microphone was employed at the first ever radio broadcast, a performance at the New York Metropolitan Opera House in Wente of Western Electric developed the next breakthrough with the first condenser microphone, in, the first practical moving coil microphone was built.



The Marconi Skykes or magnetophon, developed by Captain H. Also in, the microphone was introduced, another electromagnetic type, believed to have been developed by Harry F. Over the years these microphones were developed by companies, most notably RCA that made large advancements in pattern control.



With television and film technology booming there was demand for high fidelity microphones, electro-Voice responded with their Academy Award-winning shotgun microphone in During the second half of 20th century development advanced quickly with the Shure Brothers bringing out the SM58, digital was pioneered by Milab in with the DM The latest research developments include the use of optics, lasers and interferometers.



Active noise control — Active noise control, also known as noise cancellation, or active noise reduction, is a method for reducing unwanted sound by the addition of a second sound specifically designed to cancel the first.



Sound is a wave, which consists of alternating periods of compression and rarefaction. A noise-cancellation speaker emits a sound wave with the same amplitude, the waves combine to form a new wave, in a process called interference, and effectively cancel each other out — an effect which is called destructive interference.



Modern active noise control is achieved through the use of analog circuits or digital signal processing. This inverted signal is amplified and a transducer creates a sound wave directly proportional to the amplitude of the original waveform.



This effectively reduces the volume of the perceivable noise, a noise-cancellation speaker may be co-located with the sound source to be attenuated. In this case it must have the same power level as the source of the unwanted sound.



Alternatively, the transducer emitting the cancellation signal may be located at the location where sound attenuation is wanted and this requires a much lower power level for cancellation but is effective only for a single user.



In small enclosed spaces global noise reduction can be achieved via multiple speakers and feedback microphones, applications can be 1-dimensional or 3-dimensional, depending on the type of zone to protect.



Periodic sounds, even ones, are easier to cancel than random sounds due to the repetition in the wave form. Protection of a 1-dimension zone is easier and requires one or two microphones and speakers to be effective.



Several commercial applications have been successful, noise-cancelling headphones, active mufflers, the term 1-dimension refers to a simple pistonic relationship between the noise and the active speaker or between the active speaker and the listener.



Protection of a 3-dimension zone requires many microphones and speakers, making it more expensive, high frequency waves are difficult to reduce in three dimensions due to their relatively short audio wavelength in air.



High frequency sounds above Hz tend to cancel and reinforce unpredictably from many directions, in sum, the most effective noise reduction in three-dimensional space involves low frequency sounds.



This is because an engines cyclic nature makes fast Fourier transform analysis, noise control is an active or passive means of reducing sound emissions, often for personal comfort, environmental considerations or legal compliance.



Active noise control is sound reduction using a power source, passive noise control is sound reduction by noise-isolating materials such as insulation, sound-absorbing tiles, or a muffler rather than a power source.



Active noise canceling is best suited for low frequencies, for higher frequencies, the spacing requirements for free space and zone of silence techniques become prohibitive.



In acoustic cavity and duct based systems, the number of nodes grows rapidly with increasing frequency, passive treatments become more effective at higher frequencies and often provide an adequate solution without the need for active control.



Gyroscope — A gyroscope is a spinning wheel or disc in which the axis of rotation is free to assume any orientation by itself. When rotating, the orientation of this axis is unaffected by tilting or rotation of the mounting, according to the conservation of angular momentum, because of this, gyroscopes are useful for measuring or maintaining orientation.



Due to their precision, gyroscopes are used in gyrotheodolites to maintain direction in tunnel mining. Gyroscopes can be used to construct gyrocompasses, which complement or replace magnetic compasses, a gyroscope is a wheel mounted in two or three gimbals, which are a pivoted supports that allow the rotation of the wheel about a single axis.



In the case of a gyroscope with two gimbals, the gimbal, which is the gyroscope frame, is mounted so as to pivot about an axis in its own plane determined by the support. This outer gimbal possesses one degree of freedom and its axis possesses none.



The inner gimbal is mounted in the frame so as to pivot about an axis in its own plane that is always perpendicular to the pivotal axis of the gyroscope frame.



This inner gimbal has two degrees of rotational freedom, the axle of the spinning wheel defines the spin axis. The rotor is constrained to spin about an axis, which is perpendicular to the axis of the inner gimbal.



So the rotor possesses three degrees of freedom and its axis possesses two. The wheel responds to a force applied to the axis by a reaction force to the output axis. The behaviour of a gyroscope can be most easily appreciated by consideration of the front wheel of a bicycle.



If the wheel is leaned away from the vertical so that the top of the moves to the left. In other words, rotation on one axis of the turning wheel produces rotation of the third axis, a gyroscope flywheel will roll or resist about the output axis depending upon whether the output gimbals are of a free or fixed configuration.



Examples of some free-output-gimbal devices would be the attitude reference gyroscopes used to sense or measure the pitch, roll, the centre of gravity of the rotor can be in a fixed position. Some gyroscopes have mechanical equivalents substituted for one or more of the elements, for example, the spinning rotor may be suspended in a fluid, instead of being pivotally mounted in gimbals.



In some special cases, the outer gimbal may be omitted so that the rotor has two degrees of freedom. Essentially, a gyroscope is a top combined with a pair of gimbals, Tops were invented in many different civilizations, including classical Greece, Rome, and China.



From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. October 13, [4]. October 24, [5]. Retrieved July 28, Retrieved 13 July Retrieved 4 August Retrieved 24 March Snapdragon, 5 inch display, NFC".



Reservation list reaches 1 million but you can win a OnePlus 2". Retrieved 31 July Retrieved 28 July Retrieved 18 January Retrieved 9 October Retrieved 5 August Retrieved 11 June Retrieved 31 October Android phablets and tablet computers.



Android smartphones Other Android devices List of features in Android. Pete Lau Carl Pei. Retrieved from " https: OnePlus mobile phones Android operating system devices Touchscreen mobile phones Mobile phones introduced in Use dmy dates from August The OnePlus 3 was unveiled on June 14,, the 3 was the companys first metal unibody phone 2.



A slogan is part of the aspect that helps create an image for the product 3. From the time of Herodotus a minority of geographers have rejected the three-continent system on the grounds there is no or is no substantial physical separation between them 6.



In Canadian English, North America may be used to refer to the United States, alternatively, usage sometimes includes Greenland and Mexico, as well as offshore islands 7. Each listener can only understand the language of their partner, as more and more couples talk, the background noise gets louder, but because of the difference in languages, conversations do not mix 8.



It was also adopted by many countries outside Europe and this allowed subscribers to use other GSM networks that have roaming agreements with each other 9. As live applications two users streaming an HDTV video in the downlink and playing a game in the uplink have been demonstrated Hong Kong has carried many nicknames, the most famous among those is the Pearl of the Orient, which reflected the impressive nightscape of the citys light decorations on the skyscrapers along both sides of the Victoria Harbour It was introduced into India by the Mughals and widely used since then and its meaning varied, referring to a region that encompassed northern India and Pakistan or India in its entirety The transition away from the use of Dominion was formally reflected in with the passage of the Canada Act, later that year, the name of national holiday was changed from Dominion Day to Canada Day In, the Communities enlarged to include Denmark, Ireland, Norway had negotiated to join at the same time, but Norwegian voters rejected membership in a referendum The name was adopted by the Melayu Kingdom that existed in the seventh century on Sumatra By the population had swelled to over 80,, many of these early immigrants came to work on the pepper and gambier plantations There is evidence that human habitation in the Arabian Peninsula dates back to about, years ago The Caliph Abu Bakr sent an army from the capital Medina which completed its reconquest of the territory with the battle of Dibba in which 10, lives are thought to have been lost Anandtech characterized its design as being a cousin to the Oppo Find 7A Later that year, Nokia also introduced Windows Phone 8 phablets, engadget identified falling screen prices, increasing screen power efficiency and battery life, and the evolving importance of multimedia viewing as critical factors in the popularity of the phablet Clamshell came to be used as generic for this form factor, flip phone referred to phones that opened on the vertical axis In, Google launched its Nexus series of devices, a lineup in which Google partnered with different device manufacturers to produce new devices and introduce new Android versions Bugs found in the stage are reported to the designer Clock signal frequencies ranging from kHz to 4 MHz were very common at this time, the design complexity of CPUs increased as various technologies facilitated building smaller and more reliable electronic devices Alternatively, for the circuit area, more transistors could be used in the design Radio frequency radiation is measured in kilohertz, megahertz, or gigahertz Some legal challenges have been waged over this confusion such as a lawsuit against drive manufacturer Western Digital, Western Digital settled the challenge and added explicit disclaimers to products that the usable capacity may differ from the advertised capacity Data was stored in the capacitance of each transistor, and had to be periodically refreshed every few milliseconds before the charge could leak away Batteries convert chemical energy directly to electrical energy, a battery consists of some number of voltaic cells The latest research developments include the use of optics, lasers and interferometers In acoustic cavity and duct based systems, the number of nodes grows rapidly with increasing frequency, passive treatments become more effective at higher frequencies and often provide an adequate solution without the need for active control OnePlus [videos] OnePlus Chinese: Most of the present structure, however, dates to the Ming dynasty.



A detail from Along the River During the Qingming Festival, a 12th-century painting showing everyday life in the Song dynasty 's capital, Bianjing present-day Kaifeng. A 19th-century depiction of the Taiping Rebellion — The Mongol Empire, ca.



The gray area is the later Timurid Empire. Map of North America, from Satellite imagery of North America. Sung Wong Toi, believed to be a memorial to the last two boy emperors of the Southern Song dynasty, as it appeared before the Second Sino-Japanese War.



City of Victoria, s. Queen's Road Central at the junction of Duddell Street, c. Liberation of Hong Kong in Picture taken at the Cenotaph in Central. Paintings at the Ajanta Caves in Aurangabad, Maharashtra, 6th century.



Writing the will and testament of the Mughal king court in Persian, — Areas directly governed by the British are shaded pink; the princely state s under British suzerainty are in yellow. The European Union EU is a political and economic union of 28 member states that are located primarily in Europe.



In, the Iron Curtain fell, enabling the union to expand further Berlin Wall pictured. In, the Lisbon Treaty entered into force. EU representatives receive the Nobel Peace Prize in Mont Blanc in the Alps is the highest peak in the EU.



Death of Captain Cook by Johann Zoffany Declaration of Independence by John Trumbull. The Battle of Gettysburg by Thure de Thulstrup. Malaysia is a federal constitutional monarchy located in Southeast Asia.



Fort A Famosa in Melaka built by the Portuguese in the 16th century. The Dutch fleet battling with the Portuguese armada as part of the Dutch—Portuguese War in to gain control of Melaka. Singapore's free port trade was at Singapore River for years.



Fort Canning hill centre was home to its ancient and early colonial rulers. Sir Stamford Raffles 's statue at the Singapore River spot where he first landed.



Raffles Hotel was established in Singapore Naval Base, built in The majority of biblical archeologists translate a set of hieroglyphs as "Israel," the first instance of the name in the record.



The Large Stone Structure, archaeological site of ancient Jerusalem. Masada fortress, location of the final battle in the First Jewish—Roman War. The 13th-century Ramban Synagogue in Jerusalem.



Aramaic inscription from the ancient city of Tayma 6th century BC. Fragment of a wall painting showing a Kindite king, 1st century CE. The ancient archaeological site of Mada'in Saleh.



Dubai in ; the area in this photo shows Bur Dubai in the foreground centered on Al-Fahidi Fort ; Deira in middle-right on the other side of the creek; and Al Shindagha left and Al Ras right in the background across the creek again from Deira.



Historic photo depicting the first hoisting of the United Arab Emirates flag by the rulers of the emirates at The Union House, Dubai on 2nd of December Android green figure, next to its original packaging.



Bottom side of an Intel DX2 , showing its pins. EDVAC, one of the first stored-program computers. Voodoo3 AGP card. Random-access memory RAM is a form of computer data storage that stores data and machine code currently being used.



Example of writable volatile random-access memory: Synchronous Dynamic RAM modules, primarily used as main memory in personal computers, workstation s, and server s. These IBM tabulating machine s from the s used mechanical counter s to store information.



A portion of a core memory with a modern flash SD card on top. Top of four types of MMC cards clockwise from left: Bottom of the same four cards. A mini-SIM card next to its electrical contacts in a Nokia Note the thin gold bonding wires, and the regular, rectangular digital memory areas.



Various cells and batteries top-left to bottom-right: The IC has allowed increasingly complex CPUs to be designed and manufactured to tolerances on the order of nanometers, both the miniaturization and standardization of CPUs have increased the presence of digital devices in modern life far beyond the limited application of dedicated computing machines.



Modern microprocessors appear in electronic devices ranging from automobiles to cellphones, the so-called Harvard architecture of the Harvard Mark I, which was completed before EDVAC, also utilized a stored-program design using punched paper tape rather than electronic memory.



Relays and vacuum tubes were used as switching elements, a useful computer requires thousands or tens of thousands of switching devices. The overall speed of a system is dependent on the speed of the switches, tube computers like EDVAC tended to average eight hours between failures, whereas relay computers like the Harvard Mark I failed very rarely.



In the end, tube-based CPUs became dominant because the significant speed advantages afforded generally outweighed the reliability problems, most of these early synchronous CPUs ran at low clock rates compared to modern microelectronic designs.



Clock signal frequencies ranging from kHz to 4 MHz were very common at this time, the design complexity of CPUs increased as various technologies facilitated building smaller and more reliable electronic devices.



Multi-core processor — A multi-core processor is a single computing component with two or more independent actual processing units, which are units that read and execute program instructions.



The instructions are ordinary CPU instructions, but the multiple cores can run multiple instructions at the same time, manufacturers typically integrate the cores onto a single integrated circuit die, or onto multiple dies in a single chip package.



A multi-core processor implements multiprocessing in a physical package. Designers may couple cores in a multi-core device tightly or loosely, for example, cores may or may not share caches, and they may implement message passing or shared-memory inter-core communication methods.



Common network topologies to interconnect cores include bus, ring, two-dimensional mesh, homogeneous multi-core systems include only identical cores, heterogeneous multi-core systems have cores that are not identical.



Just as with single-processor systems, cores in multi-core systems may implement architectures such as VLIW, superscalar, Multi-core processors are widely used across many application domains, including general-purpose, embedded, network, digital signal processing, and graphics.



The improvement in performance gained by the use of a multi-core processor depends very much on the algorithms used. In particular, possible gains are limited by the fraction of the software that can run in parallel simultaneously on multiple cores, most applications, however, are not accelerated so much unless programmers invest a prohibitive amount of effort in re-factoring the whole problem.



The parallelization of software is a significant ongoing topic of research, the terms multi-core and dual-core most commonly refer to some sort of central processing unit, but are sometimes also applied to digital signal processors and system on a chip.



This article uses the terms multi-core and dual-core for CPUs manufactured on the integrated circuit. In contrast to systems, the term multi-CPU refers to multiple physically separate processing-units.



The terms many-core and massively multi-core are sometimes used to describe multi-core architectures with a high number of cores. Some systems use many soft microprocessor cores placed on a single FPGA, each core can be considered a semiconductor intellectual property core as well as a CPU core.



While manufacturing technology improves, reducing the size of individual gates and these physical limitations can cause significant heat dissipation and data synchronization problems.



Various other methods are used to improve CPU performance, some instruction-level parallelism methods such as superscalar pipelining are suitable for many applications, but are inefficient for others that contain difficult-to-predict code.



Many applications are better suited to thread-level parallelism methods, and multiple independent CPUs are commonly used to increase a systems overall TLP, a combination of increased available space and the demand for increased TLP led to the development of multi-core CPUs.



Several business motives drive the development of multi-core architectures, for decades, it was possible to improve performance of a CPU by shrinking the area of the integrated circuit, which reduced the cost per device on the IC.



Alternatively, for the circuit area, more transistors could be used in the design. Hertz — The hertz is the unit of frequency in the International System of Units and is defined as one cycle per second.



It is named for Heinrich Rudolf Hertz, the first person to provide proof of the existence of electromagnetic waves. Hertz are commonly expressed in SI multiples kilohertz, megahertz, gigahertz, kilo means thousand, mega meaning million, giga meaning billion and tera for trillion.



Some of the units most common uses are in the description of waves and musical tones, particularly those used in radio-. It is also used to describe the speeds at which computers, the hertz is equivalent to cycles per second, i.



One hertz simply means one cycle per second, Hz means one hundred cycles per second, and so on. The unit may be applied to any periodic event—for example, a clock might be said to tick at 1 Hz, the rate of aperiodic or stochastic events occur is expressed in reciprocal second or inverse second in general or, the specific case of radioactive decay, becquerels.



This SI unit is named after Heinrich Hertz, as with every International System of Units unit named for a person, the first letter of its symbol is upper case. Note that degree Celsius conforms to this rule because the d is lowercase.



The name was established by the International Electrotechnical Commission in, the term cycles per second was largely replaced by hertz by the s. One hobby magazine, Electronics Illustrated, declared their intention to stick with the traditional kc.



Humans perceive frequency of waves as pitch. Each musical note corresponds to a frequency which can be measured in hertz. An infants ear is able to perceive frequencies ranging from 20 Hz to 20, Hz, the range of ultrasound, infrasound and other physical vibrations such as molecular and atomic vibrations extends from a few femtoHz into the terahertz range and beyond.



Electromagnetic radiation is described by its frequency—the number of oscillations of the perpendicular electric and magnetic fields per second—expressed in hertz.



Radio frequency radiation is measured in kilohertz, megahertz, or gigahertz. Graphics processing unit — GPUs are used in embedded systems, mobile phones, personal computers, workstations, and game consoles.



Arcade system boards have been using specialized graphics chips since the s, in early video game hardware, the RAM for frame buffers was expensive, so video chips composited data together as the display was being scanned out on the monitor.



Fujitsus MB video shifter was used to accelerate the drawing of sprite graphics for various s arcade games from Taito and Midway, such as Gun Fight, Sea Wolf, the Namco Galaxian arcade system in used specialized graphics hardware supporting RGB color, multi-colored sprites and tilemap backgrounds.



In the home market, the Atari in used a video shifter called the Television Interface Adaptor, machine code subroutines could be triggered on scan lines by setting a bit on a display list instruction.



ANTIC also supported smooth vertical and horizontal scrolling independent of the CPU and it became one of the best known of what were known as graphics processing units in the s.



The Williams Electronics arcade games Robotron,, Joust, Sinistar, in, the Commodore Amiga featured a custom graphics chip, with a blitter unit accelerating bitmap manipulation, line draw, and area fill functions.



Also included is a coprocessor with its own instruction set, capable of manipulating graphics hardware registers in sync with the video beam. In, Texas Instruments released the TMS, the first microprocessor with on-chip graphics capabilities and it could run general-purpose code, but it had a very graphics-oriented instruction set.



In, this chip would become the basis of the Texas Instruments Graphics Architecture Windows accelerator cards, in, the IBM graphics system was released as one of the first video cards for IBM PC compatibles to implement fixed-function 2D primitives in electronic hardware.



Fujitsu later competed with the FM Towns computer, released in with support for a full 16,, color palette, in, the first dedicated polygonal 3D graphics boards were introduced in arcades with the Namco System 21 and Taito Air System.



In, S3 Graphics introduced the S3 86C, which its designers named after the Porsche as an implication of the performance increase it promised. The 86C spawned a host of imitators, by, all major PC graphics chip makers had added 2D acceleration support to their chips.



By this time, fixed-function Windows accelerators had surpassed expensive general-purpose graphics coprocessors in Windows performance, throughout the s, 2D GUI acceleration continued to evolve.



Gigabyte — The gigabyte is a multiple of the unit byte for digital information. The prefix giga means in the International System of Units, the unit symbol for the gigabyte is GB.



However, the term is used in some fields of computer science and information technology to denote bytes. The use of gigabyte may thus be ambiguous, to address this ambiguity, the International System of Quantities standardizes the binary prefixes which denote a series of integer powers of With these prefixes, a module that is labeled as having the size 1GB has one gibibyte of storage capacity.



The term gigabyte is commonly used to mean either bytes or bytes, the latter binary usage originated as compromise technical jargon for byte multiples that needed to be expressed in a power of 2, but lacked a convenient name.



As is approximately, roughly corresponding to SI multiples, in the International Electrotechnical Commission published standards for binary prefixes, requiring that the gigabyte strictly denote bytes and gibibyte denote bytes.



The file manager of Mac OS X version The binary definition uses powers of the base 2, as is the principle of binary computers. This usage is widely promulgated by some operating systems, such as Microsoft Windows in reference to computer memory and this definition is synonymous with the unambiguous unit gibibyte.



Since the first disk drive, the IBM, disk drive manufacturers expressed hard drive capacities using decimal prefixes, with the advent of gigabyte-range drive capacities, manufacturers based most consumer hard drive capacities in certain size classes expressed in decimal gigabytes, such as GB.



The exact capacity of a given model is usually slightly larger than the class designation. Practically all manufacturers of disk drives and flash-memory disk devices continue to define one gigabyte as bytes.



Some operating systems such as OS X express hard drive capacity or file size using decimal multipliers and this discrepancy causes confusion, as a disk with an advertised capacity of, for example, GB might be reported by the operating system as GB, meaning GiB.



As storage sizes increase and larger units are used, these differences even more pronounced. Some legal challenges have been waged over this confusion such as a lawsuit against drive manufacturer Western Digital, Western Digital settled the challenge and added explicit disclaimers to products that the usable capacity may differ from the advertised capacity.



Random-access memory — Random-access memory is a form of computer data storage which stores frequently used program instructions to increase the general speed of a system.



A random-access memory device allows data items to be read or written in almost the same amount of time irrespective of the location of data inside the memory. RAM contains multiplexing and demultiplexing circuitry, to connect the lines to the addressed storage for reading or writing the entry.



Usually more than one bit of storage is accessed by the same address, in todays technology, random-access memory takes the form of integrated circuits. RAM is normally associated with types of memory, where stored information is lost if power is removed.



Other types of non-volatile memories exist that allow access for read operations. Integrated-circuit RAM chips came into the market in the early s, with the first commercially available DRAM chip, early computers used relays, mechanical counters or delay lines for main memory functions.



Ultrasonic delay lines could only reproduce data in the order it was written, drum memory could be expanded at relatively low cost but efficient retrieval of memory items required knowledge of the physical layout of the drum to optimize speed.



Latches built out of vacuum tube triodes, and later, out of transistors, were used for smaller and faster memories such as registers. Such registers were relatively large and too costly to use for large amounts of data, the first practical form of random-access memory was the Williams tube starting in It stored data as electrically charged spots on the face of a cathode ray tube, since the electron beam of the CRT could read and write the spots on the tube in any order, memory was random access.



The capacity of the Williams tube was a few hundred to around a thousand bits, but it was smaller, faster. In fact, rather than the Williams tube memory being designed for the SSEM, magnetic-core memory was invented in and developed up until the mids.



It became a form of random-access memory, relying on an array of magnetized rings. By changing the sense of each rings magnetization, data could be stored with one bit stored per ring, since every ring had a combination of address wires to select and read or write it, access to any memory location in any sequence was possible.



Magnetic core memory was the form of memory system until displaced by solid-state memory in integrated circuits. Data was stored in the capacitance of each transistor, and had to be periodically refreshed every few milliseconds before the charge could leak away.



MMC originally used a 1-bit serial interface. MMC can be used in devices that can use Secure Digital cards. Typically, an MMC is used as a medium for a portable device.



For example, a camera would use an MMC for storing image files. With an MMC reader, a user could copy the pictures taken with the camera off to his or her computer. Modern computers, both laptops and desktops, often have SD slots, which can additionally read MMCs if the operating system drivers can, MMCs are available in sizes up to and including GB.



They are used in almost every context in which cards are used, like cellular phones, digital audio players, digital cameras. While few companies build MMC slots into devices today, the card is still widely used in the industry as a primary means of integrated storage in portable devices.



This technology is a standard available to any company wanting to develop based on it. There is no royalty charged for devices which host an MMC, a membership with the MMC Association must be purchased in order to manufacture the cards themselves.



As of July, the latest specifications version 4. A highly detailed version is available on-line that contains information for writing an MMC driver. As of February, the latest specifications version 5.



Subscriber identity module — It is also possible to store contact information on many SIM cards. SIM cards can also be used in satellite phones, the SIM circuit is part of the function of a Universal Integrated Circuit Card physical smart card, which is usually made of PVC with embedded contacts and semiconductors.



The operating voltage of the majority of SIM cards launched before was 5 V. In order to allow interoperability of the applications, Java Card was taken as the solution of choice by ETSI, additional standards and specifications of interest are maintained by GlobalPlatform.



This is used by operators to store information on preferred networks. The standard was introduced in August by joint efforts between SanDisk, Panasonic and Toshiba as an improvement over MultiMediaCards, and has become the industry standard.



SDA today has about 1, member companies, the SDA uses several trademarked logos owned and licensed by SD-3C to enforce compliance with its specifications and assure users of compatibility.



There are many combinations of factors and device families, although as of The three form factors are the size, the mini size, and the micro size. Electrically passive adapters allow a card to fit and function in a device built for a larger card.



The SD cards small footprint is a storage medium for smaller, thinner. The second-generation Secure Digital card was developed to improve on the MultiMediaCard standard, which continued to evolve, Secure Digital changed the MMC design in several ways, Asymmetrical slots in the sides of the SD card prevent inserting it upside down.



Most SD cards are 2. The SD specification envisioned capacities and transfer rates exceeding those of MMC, for a comparison table, see below. While MMC uses a pin for data transfers, the SD card added a four-wire bus mode for higher data rates.



The SD card added Content Protection for Recordable Media security circuitry for digital rights management content-protection, full-size SD cards do not fit into the slimmer MMC slots, and other issues also affect the ability to use one format in a host device designed for the other.



Battery electricity — An electric battery is a device consisting of one or more electrochemical cells with external connections provided to power electrical devices such as flashlights, smartphones, and electric cars.



When a battery is supplying power, its positive terminal is the cathode. The terminal marked negative is the source of electrons that when connected to a circuit will flow.



It is the movement of ions within the battery which allows current to flow out of the battery to perform work. Historically the term specifically referred to a device composed of multiple cells. Primary batteries are used once and discarded, the materials are irreversibly changed during discharge.



Common examples are the battery used for flashlights and a multitude of portable electronic devices. Secondary batteries can be discharged and recharged multiple times using mains power from a wall socket, examples include the lead-acid batteries used in vehicles and lithium-ion batteries used for portable electronics such as laptops and smartphones.



Batteries have much lower energy than common fuels such as gasoline. This is somewhat offset by the efficiency of electric motors in producing mechanical work. The usage of battery to describe a group of electrical devices dates to Benjamin Franklin, alessandro Volta built and described the first electrochemical battery, the voltaic pile, in This was a stack of copper and zinc plates, separated by brine-soaked paper disks, Volta did not understand that the voltage was due to chemical reactions.



Although early batteries were of value for experimental purposes, in practice their voltages fluctuated. It consisted of a pot filled with a copper sulfate solution, in which was immersed an unglazed earthenware container filled with sulfuric acid.



These wet cells used liquid electrolytes, which were prone to leakage and spillage if not handled correctly, many used glass jars to hold their components, which made them fragile and potentially dangerous.



These characteristics made wet cells unsuitable for portable appliances, near the end of the nineteenth century, the invention of dry cell batteries, which replaced the liquid electrolyte with a paste, made portable electrical devices practical.



Batteries convert chemical energy directly to electrical energy, a battery consists of some number of voltaic cells. Ampere hour — The commonly seen milliampere hour is one-thousandth of an ampere hour.



The ampere hour is used in measurements of electrochemical systems such as electroplating. A milliampere second is a unit of measure used in X-ray imaging, diagnostic imaging and this quantity is proportional to the total X-ray energy produced by a given X-ray tube operated at a particular voltage.



The same total dose can be delivered in different time periods depending on the X-ray tube current, an ampere hour is not a unit of energy. In a battery system, for example, accurate calculation of the energy delivered requires integration of the power delivered over the discharge interval, generally, the battery voltage varies during discharge, an average value or nominal value may be used to approximate the integration of power.



The Faraday constant is the charge on one mole of electrons and it is used in electrochemical calculations. An AA size dry cell has a capacity of about 2 to 3 ampere hours, automotive car batteries vary in capacity but a large automobile propelled by an internal combustion engine would have about a 50 ampere hour battery capacity.



Since one ampere hour can produce 0. Lithium polymer battery — A lithium polymer battery, or more correctly lithium-ion polymer battery, is a rechargeable battery of lithium-ion technology using a polymer electrolyte instead of the more common liquid electrolyte.



High conductivity semisolid polymers form the electrolyte for LiPo cells are being used in tablet computers, after that, other packaging forms evolved, including the pouch format now also called LiPo.



Lithium polymer cells have evolved from lithium-ion and lithium-metal batteries. The primary difference is instead of using a lithium-salt electrolyte held in an organic solvent. A typical cell has four components, positive electrode, negative electrode, separator.



The separator itself may be a polymer, such as a film of polyethylene or polypropylene, thus, even when the cell has a liquid electrolyte. In addition to this, the electrode can be further decomposed in three parts, the lithium-transition-metal-oxide, a conductive additive, and a polymer binder of poly.



The negative electrode material may have the three parts, only with carbon replacing the lithium-metal-oxide. To prevent the electrodes from touching each other directly, a separator is in between which allows only the ions and not the electrode particles to migrate from one side to the other.



For LiPo battery packs with cells connected in series, a specialised charger may monitor the charge on a per-cell basis so that all cells are brought to the state of charge.



Unlike lithium-ion cylindrical and prismatic cells, which have a metal case, LiPo cells have a flexible, foil-type case. LiPo cells provide manufacturers with compelling advantages and they can easily produce batteries of almost any desired shape.



Test reports warn of the risk of fire when the batteries are not used in accordance with the instructions, as of mid, LiPo packs of 1. Microphone — A microphone, colloquially nicknamed mic or mike, is a transducer that converts sound into an electrical signal.



Several different types of microphone are in use, which employ different methods to convert the air pressure variations of a wave to an electrical signal. Microphones typically need to be connected to a preamplifier before the signal can be recorded or reproduced, in order to speak to larger groups of people, a need arose to increase the volume of the human voice.



The earliest devices used to achieve this were acoustic megaphones, some of the first examples, from fifth century BC Greece, were theater masks with horn-shaped mouth openings that acoustically amplified the voice of actors in amphitheatres.



In, the English physicist Robert Hooke was the first to experiment with an other than air with the invention of the lovers telephone made of stretched wire with a cup attached at each end.



German inventor Johann Philipp Reis designed an early sound transmitter that used a strip attached to a vibrating membrane that would produce intermittent current. Better results were achieved with the transmitter design in Scottish-American Alexander Graham Bells telephone of — the diaphragm was attached to a conductive rod in an acid solution.



These systems, however, gave a poor sound quality. The first microphone that enabled proper voice telephony was the carbon microphone and this was independently developed by David Edward Hughes in England and Emile Berliner and Thomas Edison in the US.



Although Edison was awarded the first patent in mid, Hughes had demonstrated his working device in front of many witnesses some years earlier, the carbon microphone is the direct prototype of todays microphones and was critical in the development of telephony, broadcasting and the recording industries.



Thomas Edison refined the carbon microphone into his carbon-button transmitter of and this microphone was employed at the first ever radio broadcast, a performance at the New York Metropolitan Opera House in Wente of Western Electric developed the next breakthrough with the first condenser microphone, in, the first practical moving coil microphone was built.



The Marconi Skykes or magnetophon, developed by Captain H. Also in, the microphone was introduced, another electromagnetic type, believed to have been developed by Harry F. Over the years these microphones were developed by companies, most notably RCA that made large advancements in pattern control.



With television and film technology booming there was demand for high fidelity microphones, electro-Voice responded with their Academy Award-winning shotgun microphone in During the second half of 20th century development advanced quickly with the Shure Brothers bringing out the SM58, digital was pioneered by Milab in with the DM The latest research developments include the use of optics, lasers and interferometers.



Active noise control — Active noise control, also known as noise cancellation, or active noise reduction, is a method for reducing unwanted sound by the addition of a second sound specifically designed to cancel the first.



Sound is a wave, which consists of alternating periods of compression and rarefaction. A noise-cancellation speaker emits a sound wave with the same amplitude, the waves combine to form a new wave, in a process called interference, and effectively cancel each other out — an effect which is called destructive interference.



Modern active noise control is achieved through the use of analog circuits or digital signal processing. This inverted signal is amplified and a transducer creates a sound wave directly proportional to the amplitude of the original waveform.



This effectively reduces the volume of the perceivable noise, a noise-cancellation speaker may be co-located with the sound source to be attenuated. In this case it must have the same power level as the source of the unwanted sound.



Alternatively, the transducer emitting the cancellation signal may be located at the location where sound attenuation is wanted and this requires a much lower power level for cancellation but is effective only for a single user.



In small enclosed spaces global noise reduction can be achieved via multiple speakers and feedback microphones, applications can be 1-dimensional or 3-dimensional, depending on the type of zone to protect.



Periodic sounds, even ones, are easier to cancel than random sounds due to the repetition in the wave form. Protection of a 1-dimension zone is easier and requires one or two microphones and speakers to be effective.



Several commercial applications have been successful, noise-cancelling headphones, active mufflers, the term 1-dimension refers to a simple pistonic relationship between the noise and the active speaker or between the active speaker and the listener.



Protection of a 3-dimension zone requires many microphones and speakers, making it more expensive, high frequency waves are difficult to reduce in three dimensions due to their relatively short audio wavelength in air.



High frequency sounds above Hz tend to cancel and reinforce unpredictably from many directions, in sum, the most effective noise reduction in three-dimensional space involves low frequency sounds.



This is because an engines cyclic nature makes fast Fourier transform analysis, noise control is an active or passive means of reducing sound emissions, often for personal comfort, environmental considerations or legal compliance.



Active noise control is sound reduction using a power source, passive noise control is sound reduction by noise-isolating materials such as insulation, sound-absorbing tiles, or a muffler rather than a power source.



Active noise canceling is best suited for low frequencies, for higher frequencies, the spacing requirements for free space and zone of silence techniques become prohibitive. In acoustic cavity and duct based systems, the number of nodes grows rapidly with increasing frequency, passive treatments become more effective at higher frequencies and often provide an adequate solution without the need for active control.



Gyroscope — A gyroscope is a spinning wheel or disc in which the axis of rotation is free to assume any orientation by itself. When rotating, the orientation of this axis is unaffected by tilting or rotation of the mounting, according to the conservation of angular momentum, because of this, gyroscopes are useful for measuring or maintaining orientation.



Due to their precision, gyroscopes are used in gyrotheodolites to maintain direction in tunnel mining. Gyroscopes can be used to construct gyrocompasses, which complement or replace magnetic compasses, a gyroscope is a wheel mounted in two or three gimbals, which are a pivoted supports that allow the rotation of the wheel about a single axis.



In the case of a gyroscope with two gimbals, the gimbal, which is the gyroscope frame, is mounted so as to pivot about an axis in its own plane determined by the support. This outer gimbal possesses one degree of freedom and its axis possesses none.



The inner gimbal is mounted in the frame so as to pivot about an axis in its own plane that is always perpendicular to the pivotal axis of the gyroscope frame. This inner gimbal has two degrees of rotational freedom, the axle of the spinning wheel defines the spin axis.



The rotor is constrained to spin about an axis, which is perpendicular to the axis of the inner gimbal. So the rotor possesses three degrees of freedom and its axis possesses two. The wheel responds to a force applied to the axis by a reaction force to the output axis.



The behaviour of a gyroscope can be most easily appreciated by consideration of the front wheel of a bicycle. If the wheel is leaned away from the vertical so that the top of the moves to the left.



In other words, rotation on one axis of the turning wheel produces rotation of the third axis, a gyroscope flywheel will roll or resist about the output axis depending upon whether the output gimbals are of a free or fixed configuration.



Examples of some free-output-gimbal devices would be the attitude reference gyroscopes used to sense or measure the pitch, roll, the centre of gravity of the rotor can be in a fixed position.



Some gyroscopes have mechanical equivalents substituted for one or more of the elements, for example, the spinning rotor may be suspended in a fluid, instead of being pivotally mounted in gimbals.



In some special cases, the outer gimbal may be omitted so that the rotor has two degrees of freedom. Essentially, a gyroscope is a top combined with a pair of gimbals, Tops were invented in many different civilizations, including classical Greece, Rome, and China.



Accelerometer — An accelerometer is a device that measures proper acceleration, proper acceleration is not the same as coordinate acceleration. For example, an accelerometer at rest on the surface of the Earth will measure an acceleration due to Earths gravity, by contrast, accelerometers in free fall will measure zero.



Accelerometers have multiple applications in industry and science, highly sensitive accelerometers are components of inertial navigation systems for aircraft and missiles.



Accelerometers are used to detect and monitor vibration in rotating machinery, accelerometers are used in tablet computers and digital cameras so that images on screens are always displayed upright.



Accelerometers are used in drones for flight stabilisation, coordinated accelerometers can be used to measure differences in proper acceleration, particularly gravity, over their separation in space, i.



This gravity gradiometry is useful because absolute gravity is a weak effect, micromachined accelerometers are increasingly present in portable electronic devices and video game controllers, to detect the position of the device or provide for game input.



An accelerometer measures proper acceleration, which is the acceleration it experiences relative to freefall and is the acceleration felt by people and objects. Put another way, at any point in spacetime the equivalence principle guarantees the existence of an inertial frame.



Such accelerations are popularly denoted g-force, i. The reason for the appearance of an offset is Einsteins equivalence principle. For similar reasons, an accelerometer will read zero during any type of free fall and this includes use in a coasting spaceship in deep space far from any mass, a spaceship orbiting the Earth, an airplane in a parabolic zero-g arc, or any free-fall in vacuum.



Another example is free-fall at a high altitude that atmospheric effects can be neglected. However this does not include a fall in air resistance produces drag forces that reduce the acceleration.



At terminal velocity the accelerometer will indicate 1 g acceleration upwards, Acceleration is quantified in the SI unit metres per second per second, in the cgs unit gal, or popularly in terms of standard gravity.



For the practical purpose of finding the acceleration of objects with respect to the Earth, such as for use in a navigation system. This can be obtained either by calibrating the device at rest, conceptually, an accelerometer behaves as a damped mass on a spring.



When the accelerometer experiences an acceleration, the mass is displaced to the point that the spring is able to accelerate the mass at the rate as the casing. The displacement is measured to give the acceleration.



Proximity sensor — A proximity sensor is a sensor able to detect the presence of nearby objects without any physical contact. A proximity sensor often emits a field or a beam of electromagnetic radiation.



The object being sensed is often referred to as the proximity sensors target, different proximity sensor targets demand different sensors. For example, a capacitive or photoelectric sensor might be suitable for a plastic target, the maximum distance that this sensor can detect is defined nominal range.



Some sensors have adjustments of the range or means to report a graduated detection distance. Some know these process as thermosensation, proximity sensors can have a high reliability and long functional life because of the absence of mechanical parts and lack of physical contact between sensor and the sensed object.



Proximity sensors are used on smartphones to detect accidental touchscreen taps when held to the ear during a call. They are also used in machine vibration monitoring to measure the variation in distance between a shaft and its support bearing and this is common in large steam turbines, compressors, and motors that use sleeve-type bearings.



International Electrotechnical Commission defines the technical details of proximity sensors, a proximity sensor adjusted to a very short range is often used as a touch switch.



Proximity sensors can be used to recognise air gestures and hover-manipulations, an array of proximity sensing elements can replace vision-camera or depth camera based solutions for the hand gesture detection.



In particular, a car infotainment system in vehicle can employ the proximity sensors to cover the area over the screen. For example, LG Electronics has recently filed several patents addressing this advanced technology, sheet break sensing in paper machine.



Automatic faucets Motion detector Occupancy sensor. Multi-touch — In computing, multi-touch is technology that enables a surface to recognize the presence of more than one or more than two points of contact with the surface.



This plural-point awareness may be used to implement additional functionality, such as pinch to zoom or to activate certain subroutines attached to predefined gestures, the use of touchscreen technology to control electronic devices pre-dates multi-touch technology and the personal computer.



Early synthesizer and electronic instrument builders like Hugh Le Caine and Robert Moog experimented with using touch-sensitive capacitance sensors to control the sounds made by their instruments, early touchscreens only registered one point of touch at a time.



On-screen keyboards were thus awkward to use, because key-rollover and holding down a key while typing another were not possible. In a handwritten note dated 11 March, Stumpe presented his proposed solution — a capacitive touch screen with a number of programmable buttons presented on a display.



The capacitors were to consist of fine lines etched in copper on a sheet of glass — fine enough, in the final device, a simple lacquer coating prevented the fingers from actually touching the capacitors.



In, MIT described a keyboard with variable graphics capable of multi-touch detection, in the early s, The University of Torontos Input Research Group were among the earliest to explore the software side of multi-touch input systems.



A system at the University of Toronto used a panel with a camera placed behind the glass. When a finger or several fingers pressed on the glass, the camera would detect the action as one or more spots on an otherwise white background.



Since the size of a dot was dependent on pressure, the system was somewhat pressure-sensitive as well, of note, this system was input only and not able to display graphics.



In, Bell Labs at Murray Hill published a discussion of touch-screen based interfaces. By, both Bell Labs and Carnegie Mellon University had working multi-touch-screen prototypes — both input and graphics — that could respond interactively in response to multiple finger inputs, the Bell Labs system was based on capacitive coupling of fingers, whereas the CMU system was optical.



In, the canonical multitouch pinch-to-zoom gesture was demonstrated, with coordinated graphics, an advance occurred in, when Pierre Wellner published a paper on his multi-touch Digital Desk, which supported multi-finger and pinching motions.



Various companies expanded upon these inventions in the beginning of the twenty-first century, the company Fingerworks developed various multi-touch technologies between and, including Touchstream keyboards and the iGesture Pad.



Several studies of technology were published in the early s by Alan Hedge, professor of human factors. Apple acquired Fingerworks and its technology in Touchscreen — A touchscreen is a input and output device normally layered on the top of an electronic visual display of an information processing system.



The touchscreen enables the user to interact directly with what is displayed, rather using a mouse, touchpad. Touchscreens are common in such as game consoles, personal computers, tablet computers, electronic voting machines, point of sale systems.



They can also be attached to computers or, as terminals and they also play a prominent role in the design of digital appliances such as personal digital assistants and some e-readers.



The popularity of smartphones, tablets, and many types of appliances is driving the demand and acceptance of common touchscreens for portable. The application of technology for air traffic control was described in an article published in A resistive touchscreen was developed by American inventor George Samuel Hurst, the first version was produced in This arrangement can sense any fingertip-sized opaque object in close proximity to the screen, a similar touchscreen was used on the HP starting in, this was one of the worlds earliest commercial touchscreen computers.



HP mounted their infrared transmitters and receivers around the bezel of a 9 Sony Cathode Ray Tube, in, Fujitsu released a touch pad for the Micro 16, to deal with the complexity of kanji characters, which were stored as tiled graphics.



In, Sega released the Terebi Oekaki, also known as the Sega Graphic Board, for the SG video game console and it consisted of a plastic pen and a plastic board with a transparent window where the pen presses are detected.



It was used primarily for a software application. A graphic touch tablet was released for the Sega AI Computer in, touch-sensitive Control-Display Units were evaluated for commercial aircraft flight decks in the early s.



In, the University of Toronto group including Bill Buxton developed a tablet that used capacitance rather than bulky camera-based optical sensing systems. In, the first graphical point of sale software was demonstrated on the bit Atari ST color computer and it featured a color touchscreen widget-driven interface.



In, Casio launched the Casio PB pocket computer with a touchscreen consisting of a 4x4 matrix, until touchscreens had the bad reputation of being imprecise. Pixel — The address of a pixel corresponds to its physical coordinates.



LCD pixels are manufactured in a grid, and are often represented using dots or squares. Each pixel is a sample of an image, more samples typically provide more accurate representations of the original.



The intensity of each pixel is variable, in color imaging systems, a color is typically represented by three or four component intensities such as red, green, and blue, or cyan, magenta, yellow, and black.



The word pixel is based on a contraction of pix and el, the word pixel was first published in by Frederic C. Billingsley of JPL, to describe the elements of video images from space probes to the Moon.



Billingsley had learned the word from Keith E. The word is a combination of pix, for picture, the word pix appeared in Variety magazine headlines in, as an abbreviation for the word pictures, in reference to movies.



By, pix was being used in reference to pictures by photojournalists. The concept of a picture element dates to the earliest days of television, some authors explain pixel as picture cell, as early as In graphics and in image and video processing, pel is often used instead of pixel, for example, IBM used it in their Technical Reference for the original PC.



A pixel is generally thought of as the smallest single component of a digital image, however, the definition is highly context-sensitive. For example, there can be printed pixels in a page, or pixels carried by electronic signals, or represented by digital values, or pixels on a display device, or pixels in a digital camera.



This list is not exhaustive and, depending on context, synonyms include pel, sample, byte, bit, dot, Pixels can be used as a unit of measure such as, pixels per inch, pixels per line, or spaced 10 pixels apart.



For example, a high-quality photographic image may be printed with ppi on a dpi inkjet printer, even higher dpi numbers, such as the dpi quoted by printer manufacturers since, do not mean much in terms of achievable resolution.



The more pixels used to represent an image, the closer the result can resemble the original, the number of pixels in an image is sometimes called the resolution, though resolution has a more specific definition.



The pixels, or color samples, that form an image may or may not be in one-to-one correspondence with screen pixels. In computing, a composed of pixels is known as a bitmapped image or a raster image.



Pixel density — Horizontal and vertical density are usually the same, as most devices have square pixels, but differ on devices that have non-square pixels. The lowest acceptable quality factor is considered 1.



An absorbent paper surface, uncoated recycled paper for instance, lets ink droplets spread —so requires a more open printing screen, input resolution can therefore be reduced to minimize file size without loss in quality, as long as the quality factor of 2 is maintained.



This is easily determined by doubling the line frequency, for example, printing on an uncoated paper stock often limits printing screen frequency to no more than lpi, therefore, a quality factor of 2 is achieved with images of ppi.



The PPI of a display is related to the size of the display in inches. This measurement is referred to as dots per inch, though that measurement more accurately refers to the resolution of a computer printer.



This figure is determined by dividing the width of the area in pixels by the width of the display area in inches. It is possible for a display to have different horizontal and vertical PPI measurements, the dot pitch of a computer display determines the absolute limit of possible pixel density.



In January, Kopin Corporation announced a 0. In they followed this up with a DPI0. Holography applications demand even greater density, as higher pixel density produces a larger image size.



Spatial light modulators can reduce pixel pitch to 2. However, this figure depends both on the distance between viewer and image, and the visual acuity. For perspective, such a device at 15 inch screen size would have to more than four Full HD screens.



The term usually assumes a widescreen ratio of 16,9. Small camcorders, smartphones and digital cameras can capture still and moving images in p resolution. Such frame rates require H.



The p50 format is considered to be a production format and, eventually. There is no word when any of the networks will consider airing at p in the foreseeable future. The Blu-ray Disc video specification allows encoding of p Smartphones with p FullHD display have been available on the market since, as of the end of, it is the standard for mid-range to high-end smartphones and many of the flagship devices of used even higher resolutions.



Several websites, including YouTube, allow videos to be uploaded in the p format, YouTube streams p content at approximately 4 megabits per second compared to Blu-rays 30 to 40 megabits per second.



Red and green OLED films have longer lifespans compared to blue OLED films and this variation results in colour shifts as a particular pixel fades faster than the other pixels. AMOLED displays are prone to screen burn-in, which leaves a permanent imprint of overused colours represented by overused images, manufacturers have developed in-cell touch panels, integrating the production of capacitive sensor arrays in the AMOLED module fabrication process.



Using custom modeling and analytic approaches, Samsung has developed short and long-range film-thickness control, AMOLED displays provide higher refresh rates than passive-matrix, often reducing the response time to less than a millisecond, and they consume significantly less power.



This advantage makes active-matrix OLEDs well-suited for portable electronics, where power consumption is critical to battery life, the amount of power the display consumes varies significantly depending on the color and brightness shown.



Camera phone — A camera phone is a mobile phone which is able to capture photographs. Most camera phones also record video, most camera phones are simpler than separate digital cameras. Their usual fixed-focus lenses and smaller sensors limit their performance in poor lighting, lacking a physical shutter, some have a long shutter lag.



Photoflash is typically provided by an LED source which illuminates less intensely over a longer exposure time than a bright. Optical zoom and tripod screws are rare and none has a hot shoe for attaching an external flash, some also lack a USB connection or a removable memory card.



Most have Bluetooth and WiFi, and can make geotagged photographs, some of the more expensive camera phones have only a few of these technical disadvantages, but with bigger image sensors, their capabilities approach those of low-end point-and-shoot cameras.



In the smartphone era, the sales increase of camera phones caused point-and-shoot camera sales to peak about Most model lines improve their cameras every year or two, most smartphones only have a menu choice to start a camera application program and an on-screen button to activate the shutter.



Some also have a camera button, for quickness and convenience. The principal advantages of camera phones are cost and compactness, indeed for a user who carries a mobile phone anyway, smartphones that are camera phones may run mobile applications to add capabilities such as geotagging and image stitching.



However, the screen, being a general purpose control, lacks the agility of a separate cameras dedicated buttons. The latest generation of cameras also apply distortion, vignetting.



Most camera phones have a digital zoom feature, an external camera can be added, coupled wirelessly to the phone by Wi-Fi. They are compatible with most smartphones, images are usually saved in the JPEG file format, except for some high-end camera phones which have also RAW feature and the Android 5.



Windows Phones can be configured to operate as a camera if the phone is asleep. F-number — The f-number of an optical system such as a camera lens is the ratio of the systems focal length to the diameter of the entrance pupil.



It is a number that is a quantitative measure of lens speed. It is also known as the ratio, f-ratio, f-stop. Ignoring differences in light transmission efficiency, a lens with a greater f-number projects darker images, the brightness of the projected image relative to the brightness of the scene in the lenss field of view decreases with the square of the f-number.



Doubling the f-number decreases the brightness by a factor of four. To maintain the same photographic exposure when doubling the f-number, the time would need to be four times as long.



Most lenses have a diaphragm, which changes the size of the aperture stop. The mm lenss entrance pupil has four times the area of the mm lenss entrance pupil, a T-stop is an f-number adjusted to account for light transmission efficiency.



The word stop is sometimes confusing due to its multiple meanings, a stop can be a physical object, an opaque part of an optical system that blocks certain rays. In photography, stops are also a used to quantify ratios of light or exposure.



The one-stop unit is known as the EV unit. On a camera, the setting is traditionally adjusted in discrete steps. Each stop is marked with its corresponding f-number, and represents a halving of the light intensity from the previous stop.



Autofocus — An autofocus optical system uses a sensor, a control system and a motor to focus on an automatically or manually selected point or area. An electronic rangefinder has a display instead of the motor, the adjustment of the system has to be done manually until indication.



Autofocus methods are distinguished by their type as being active, passive or hybrid variants. Autofocus systems rely on one or more sensors to determine correct focus, some AF systems rely on a single sensor, while others use an array of sensors.



Most multi-sensor AF cameras allow manual selection of the active sensor, the data collected from AF sensors is used to control an electromechanical system that adjusts the focus of the optical system.



A variation of autofocus is a rangefinder, a system in which focus data are provided to the operator.



Temporada oneplus mobile price in india 3 classical empires




Some month before I need best an best quality mobile fone but in my small village area thare are not any single mobile shop so I am confused which place I heve. OnePlus released a statement on its website saying that it was //oneplusonemobilepriceinindiafeatures. blogspot. com oneplusonemobilepriceinindiafeatures. blogspot. com #news #info.





12.03.2018 - The Dutch fleet battling with the Portuguese armada as part of the Dutch—Portuguese War in to gain control of Melaka. Early CPUs were custom designs used as part of a larger, however, this method of designing custom CPUs for a particular application has largely given way to the development of multi-purpose processors produced in large quantities. SIM cards can also be used in satellite phones, the SIM circuit is part of the function of a Universal Integrated Circuit Card physical smart card, which is usually made of PVC with embedded contacts and semiconductors. Ccleaner free download windows 7 x64 - 521 ccleane... For example, a capacitive or photoelectric sensor might be suitable for a plastic target, the maximum distance that this sensor can detect is defined nominal range. Inthe canonical multitouch pinch-to-zoom gesture was demonstrated, with coordinated graphics, an advance occurred inwhen Pierre Wellner published a paper on his multi-touch Digital Desk, which supported multi-finger and pinching motions. Fujitsus MB video shifter was used to accelerate the drawing of sprite graphics for various s arcade games from Taito and Midway, such as Gun Fight, Sea Wolf, the Namco Galaxian arcade system in used specialized graphics hardware supporting RGB color, multi-colored sprites and tilemap backgrounds.





Sign image oneplus mobile price in india 3 classical empires 380 for.






23.02.2018 - Phablet — The phablet is a class of mobile computing devices designed to combine or straddle the size format of smartphones and tablets. While MMC uses a pin for data transfers, the SD card added a four-wire bus mode for higher data rates. Secondary batteries can be discharged and recharged multiple times using mains power from a wall socket, examples include the lead-acid batteries used in vehicles and lithium-ion batteries used for portable electronics such as laptops and smartphones. Ccleaner free download for windows 7 rus - Escrito... Better results were achieved with the transmitter design in Scottish-American Alexander Graham Bells telephone of — the diaphragm was attached to a conductive rod in an acid solution. The full-color image shows p resolution. Hong Kong is one of the worlds most significant financial centres, with the highest Financial Development Index score and consistently ranks as the worlds most competitive and freest economic entity.





Windows oneplus mobile price in india 3 classical empires.






21.03.2018 - In Augustnearly 18 months after its release, the One was officially released in the United Arab Emirates exclusively through an online retailer souq. Accelerometers are used to detect and monitor vibration in rotating machinery, accelerometers are used in tablet computers and digital cameras so that images on screens are always displayed upright. Ccleaner free download for xp latest version fileh... The combination of pressures caused a significant fall in Qualcomms profits. EDVACone of the first stored-program computers. The continent, which has long been home to the majority of the population, was the site of many of the first civilizations.



Xiaomi Mi 7 Price in India, Specification, Xiaomi Redmi Note 3 (32GB) (Mobile Specification 1 Following are top 10 best Samsung 4G mobiles in India under InFocus continues its journey in India with InFocus M Review Galaxy S9+ Price Leak Suggests EUR 1, Price Tag; OnePlus Captured 48 Percent Market in. The OnePlus 3 was unveiled on the concept of Asia—a name dating back to classical and could instead donate them to the charity Medic Mobile. On 25 August.





This term was applied to describe the current of the river Melayu in Sumatra. The name was adopted by the Melayu Kingdom that existed in the seventh century on Sumatra. Maxis — EA Maxis is a subsidiary of Electronic Arts, serving as one of its four major video game development labels.



The company was founded in as Maxis Software, an American independent video game development company, Maxis founder Will Wright likens them to digital dollhouses.



Maxis has also released games developed by other houses, such as A-Train. Maxis is the creator of one of the computer games of all time, The Sims, its first major sequel The Sims 2. After much restructuring of The Sims series development after The Sims 2, which saw development relegated to the new The Sims Studio, Maxis Emeryville studio was closed in March, moving development of Maxis titles to other EA studio locations.



Employees of the Emeryville studio were given opportunities to other positions within Maxis. In an organisational restructure later in September, the now consolidated Maxis team was moved to function alongside EA Mobile, Maxis was founded in by Will Wright and Jeff Braun to help publish SimCity on home computers.



Before then, the game was available on a limited basis on the Commodore 64 due to few publishers showing any interest in porting it. The reason for this is because SimCity wasnt a game that had definite win.



The title went on to become, statistically, one of the most popular, the SimCity series has spawned multiple sequels and spin-offs. The success of these varies, but none matched that of the original SimCity.



Maxis hit The Sims is the notable exception. Maxiss name was derived from a suggested by Jeff Brauns father, computer game companies should have two-syllable names. The interview also addresses a rumor stating that Maxis is named after six AM in reverse, the Maxis employee explains that it is just an interesting coincidence.



It lies one degree north of the equator, at the tip of peninsular Malaysia. Singapores territory consists of one island along with 62 other islets. During the Second World War, Singapore was occupied by Japan, after early years of turbulence, and despite lacking natural resources and a hinterland, the nation developed rapidly as an Asian Tiger economy, based on external trade and its workforce.



Singapore is a global commerce, finance and transport hub, the country has also been identified as a tax haven. Singapore ranks 5th internationally and first in Asia on the UN Human Development Index and it is ranked highly in education, healthcare, life expectancy, quality of life, personal safety, and housing, but does not fare well on the Democracy index.



There are four languages on the island, Malay, Mandarin, Tamil. English is its language, most Singaporeans are bilingual. Singapore is a multiparty parliamentary republic, with a Westminster system of unicameral parliamentary government.



The Peoples Action Party has won every election since self-government in, however, it is unlikely that lions ever lived on the island, Sang Nila Utama, the Srivijayan prince said to have founded and named the island Singapura, perhaps saw a Malayan tiger.



There are however other suggestions for the origin of the name, the central island has also been called Pulau Ujong as far back as the third century CE, literally island at the end in Malay.



In, Portuguese raiders burned down the settlement, which by then was part of the Johor Sultanate. The wider maritime region and much trade was under Dutch control for the following period, in the entire island, as well as the Temenggong, became a British possession after a further treaty with the Sultan.



In, Singapore became part of the Straits Settlements, under the jurisdiction of British India, prior to Raffles arrival, there were only about a thousand people living on the island, mostly indigenous Malays along with a handful of Chinese.



By the population had swelled to over 80,, many of these early immigrants came to work on the pepper and gambier plantations. Israel — Israel, officially the State of Israel, is a country in the Middle East, on the southeastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea and the northern shore of the Red Sea.



The country contains geographically diverse features within its small area. Israels economy and technology center is Tel Aviv, while its seat of government and proclaimed capital is Jerusalem, in, the United Nations adopted a Partition Plan for Mandatory Palestine recommending the creation of independent Arab and Jewish states and an internationalized Jerusalem.



Israel has since fought several wars with neighboring Arab states, in the course of which it has occupied territories including the West Bank, Golan Heights and it extended its laws to the Golan Heights and East Jerusalem, but not the West Bank.



Israels occupation of the Palestinian territories is the worlds longest military occupation in modern times, efforts to resolve the Israeli—Palestinian conflict have not resulted in peace.



However, peace treaties between Israel and both Egypt and Jordan have successfully been signed, the population of Israel, as defined by the Israel Central Bureau of Statistics, was estimated in to be 8,, people.



It is the worlds only Jewish-majority state, with Israel also hosts a significant population of foreign workers and asylum seekers from Africa and Asia, including illegal migrants from Sudan, Eritrea.



In its Basic Laws, Israel defines itself as a Jewish, Israel is a representative democracy with a parliamentary system, proportional representation and universal suffrage.



The prime minister is head of government and the Knesset is the legislature, Israel is a developed country and an OECD member, with the 35th-largest economy in the world by nominal gross domestic product as of The country benefits from a skilled workforce and is among the most educated countries in the world with one of the highest percentage of its citizens holding a tertiary education degree.



The country has the highest standard of living in the Middle East and the third highest in Asia, in the early weeks of independence, the government chose the term Israeli to denote a citizen of Israel, with the formal announcement made by Minister of Foreign Affairs Moshe Sharett.



The name Israel in these phrases refers to the patriarch Jacob who, jacobs twelve sons became the ancestors of the Israelites, also known as the Twelve Tribes of Israel or Children of Israel.



The earliest known artifact to mention the word Israel as a collective is the Merneptah Stele of ancient Egypt. It is separated from Israel and Egypt by the Gulf of Aqaba and it is the only nation with both a Red Sea coast and a Persian Gulf coast and most of its terrain consists of arid desert and mountains.



The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia was founded in by Ibn Saud and he united the four regions into a single state through a series of conquests beginning in with the capture of Riyadh, the ancestral home of his family, the House of Saud.



Saudi Arabia has since been a monarchy, effectively a hereditary dictatorship governed along Islamic lines. The ultraconservative Wahhabi religious movement within Sunni Islam has been called the predominant feature of Saudi culture, with its global spread largely financed by the oil and gas trade.



The states official language is Arabic, petroleum was discovered on 3 March and followed up by several other finds in the Eastern Province. Saudi Arabia has since become the worlds largest oil producer and exporter, controlling the second largest oil reserves.



The kingdom is categorized as a World Bank high-income economy with a high Human Development Index and is the only Arab country to be part of the G major economies. However, the economy of Saudi Arabia is the least diversified in the Gulf Cooperation Council, the state has attracted criticism for its treatment of women and use of capital punishment.



Saudi Arabia is an autocracy, has the fourth highest military expenditure in the world. Its inclusion expresses the view that the country is the possession of the royal family.



Al Saud is an Arabic name formed by adding the word Al, meaning family of or House of, in the case of the Al Saud, this is the father of the dynastys 18th century founder, Muhammad bin Saud.



There is evidence that human habitation in the Arabian Peninsula dates back to about, years ago. Each emirate is governed by a monarch, together, they jointly form the Federal Supreme Council.



The UAEs oil reserves are the seventh-largest in the world while its natural gas reserves are the worlds seventeenth-largest, Sheikh Zayed, ruler of Abu Dhabi and the first President of the UAE, oversaw the development of the Emirates and steered oil revenues into healthcare, education and infrastructure.



The UAEs economy is the most diversified in the Gulf Cooperation Council, while its most populous city of Dubai is an important global city, nevertheless, the country remains principally reliant on its export of petroleum and natural gas.



The UAE is criticised for its rights record, including the specific interpretations of Sharia used in its legal system. The UAEs rising international profile has led analysts to identify it as a regional.



It appears the land of the Emirates has been occupied for thousands of years, there is no proof of contact with the outside world at that stage, although in time it developed with civilisations in Mesopotamia and Iran.



This contact persisted and became wide-ranging, probably motivated by trade in copper from the Hajar Mountains, in ancient times, Al Hasa was part of Al Bahreyn and adjoined Greater Oman. Sassanid groups were present on the Batinah coast, in, Julfar was an important port that was used as a staging post for the Islamic invasion of the Sassanian Empire.



Thought to be Nestorian and built in AD, the church appears to have been abandoned peacefully in AD and it forms a rare physical link to a legacy of Christianity which is thought to have spread across the peninsula from 50 to AD following trade routes.



This led to a group of travelling to Medina, converting to Islam and subsequently driving a successful uprising against the unpopular Sassanids. Following the death of Prophet Muhammad, the new Islamic communities south of the Persian Gulf threatened to disintegrate, with insurrections against the Muslim leaders.



The Caliph Abu Bakr sent an army from the capital Medina which completed its reconquest of the territory with the battle of Dibba in which 10, lives are thought to have been lost.



Unveiled in April, it is the first product by OnePlus, the One was designed to compare favorably — in performance, quality, and price — to flagship devices by leading smartphone manufacturers.



The phone was first made available for sale on 25 April, exclusively from the OnePlus website and these invitations were primarily distributed by the company through contests, some of which attracted attention for their unconventional or controversial nature.



On 6 June, the device was available for general sale, as of 20 April, the device no longer requires an invite to purchase. The OnePlus company was founded on 16 December by former Oppo president Pete Lau, the companys main goal was to design his dream smartphone, one that would balance the quality of high-end devices from its major competitors with a lower price than other phones in its class.



He argued that, despite their lower cost, users would never settle for the lower-quality devices produced by other Chinese companies, Lau compared the ideals of OnePlus with those of the Japanese company Muji, with a focus on high quality products with simplistic designs.



The device is sold exclusively through the OnePlus website. On 9 February, OnePlus announced that it would begin to hold such open sales every Tuesday and its what weve been working towards, and now were ready.



Some users misinterpreted the promotion, however, and prematurely posted videos on YouTube of them breaking their phones, users were later not required to destroy their phones, and could instead donate them to the charity Medic Mobile.



On 25 August, OnePlus began a summer-themed photography coverage as a replacement, OnePlus also announced plans to establish a presence in the country, with plans to open 25 official walk-in service centres across India.



In August, nearly 18 months after its release, the One was officially released in the United Arab Emirates exclusively through an online retailer souq. Customers can purchase the phone without the need of an invite, on 25 December, the court reversed the sales ban, noting that YU and OnePlus were within different market segments—low-end and high-end devices respectively.



The devices internal hardware includes a quad-core Qualcomm Snapdragon system-on-chip clocked at 2. Due to the companys startup stature, only one model of the device was released worldwide, the chassis of the OnePlus One is constructed from magnesium, and is accompanied by a curved, textured rear cover in either black or white.



Special denim, Kevlar, and bamboo wood covers were also unveiled as accessories, the device features capacitive navigation keys, but they can be disabled in favor of customizable navigation keys rendered on-screen.



Anandtech characterized its design as being a cousin to the Oppo Find 7A. Phablet — The phablet is a class of mobile computing devices designed to combine or straddle the size format of smartphones and tablets.



The word phablet is a portmanteau of the phone and tablet. They are designed with large displays that compliment screen-intensive activity such as web browsing. They may also include software optimized for an integral self-storing stylus to facilitate sketching, note-taking, due to the markets growth, Reuters called the Year of the Phablet.



Thus, a device with a screen may not necessarily be considered one. Current phablets typically have a diagonal display measurement between 5. In comparison, most flagship smartphones released in have a size of around 5.



However, in cases, the sizes of the two devices are more compact than 16,9 aspect ratio devices with equivalent diagonal screen sizes. Reviewers encountered issues with its operating system, Android 1.



The Samsung Galaxy Note used a 5. International sales of the Galaxy Note II reached 5 million in two months, the LG Optimus Vu used a 5-inch display with an unusual 4,3 aspect ratio — in contrast to the 16,9 aspect ratio used by most smartphones.



Sony Mobile also entered the market with its 6. Later that year, Nokia also introduced Windows Phone 8 phablets, engadget identified falling screen prices, increasing screen power efficiency and battery life, and the evolving importance of multimedia viewing as critical factors in the popularity of the phablet.



Form factor mobile phones — The form factor of a mobile phone is its size, shape, and style, as well as the layout and position of its major components. The name is derived from the resemblance to a chocolate bar in size.



This form factor is used by a variety of manufacturers, such as Nokia. Bar type mobile phones commonly have the screen and keypad on a single face, the Samsung SPH-M has a unique bar style, offering different devices on either side of the bar, a phone on one side, and a digital audio player on the other.



Sony Ericsson also had a well-known MarsBar phone model CM-H, brick is a slang term almost always used to refer to large, outdated bar-type phones, typically early mobile phones with large batteries and electronics.



Such early mobile phones, such as the Motorola DynaTAC, have been displaced by newer models which offer greater portability thanks to smaller antennas. A slate or touchscreen phone is a subset of the bar form that, like a computer, has few physical buttons, instead relying upon a touchscreen.



The first commercially available touchscreen phone was the IBM Simon Personal Communicator, the iPhone released in is largely responsible for the influence and achievement of this design as it is currently conceived.



Since mids almost all come in touchscreen slate form. Phablets typically have screens that measure between 5. When flipped open, the speaker and microphone are placed closer to the operators ear and mouth.



When flipped shut, the phone becomes smaller and more portable than when it is opened for use. Motorola was once owner of a trademark for the flip phone. Motorola was the manufacturer of the famed StarTAC flip phone, in, Motorola introduced a different kind of flip phone with its Backflip smartphone.



When closed, one side is the screen and the other is a physical QWERTY keyboard, the hinge is on a long edge of the phone instead of a short edge, and when flipped out the screen is above the keyboard.



Clamshell came to be used as generic for this form factor, flip phone referred to phones that opened on the vertical axis. Mobile operating system — A mobile operating system is an operating system for smartphones, tablets, or other mobile devices.



This distinction is becoming blurred in some operating systems that are hybrids made for both uses. So-called mobile operating systems, or even only smartphones running them, Mobile operating systems, are now, as of late, the most used kind, with traditional desktop OS, now a minority used kind, see usage share of operating systems.



However, variations occur in popularity by regions, while desktop-minority also applies on some days in e. By the end of, over million smartphones were sold with Research has shown that these systems may contain a range of security vulnerabilities permitting malicious base stations to gain high levels of control over the mobile device.



Mobile operating system milestones mirror the development of mobile phones and smartphones, — The first smartphone, the IBM Simon, has a touchscreen, email, and PDA features. Android operating system — Android is a mobile operating system developed by Google, based on the Linux kernel and designed primarily for touchscreen mobile devices such as smartphones and tablets.



Variants of Android are also used on notebooks, game consoles, digital cameras, beginning with the first commercial Android device in September, the operating system has gone through multiple major releases, with the current version being 7.



Android applications can be downloaded from the Google Play store, which features over 2. In September, Android had 1. The success of Android has made it a target for patent, Android Inc.



Rubin described the Android project as tremendous potential in developing smarter mobile devices that are aware of its owners location. The early intentions of the company were to develop an operating system for digital cameras.



Despite the past accomplishments of the founders and early employees, Android Inc. In July, Google acquired Android Inc. Not much was known about Android at the time, with Rubin having only stated that they were making software for mobile phones, at Google, the team led by Rubin developed a mobile device platform powered by the Linux kernel.



Google marketed the platform to handset makers and carriers on the promise of providing a flexible, upgradeable system, Google had lined up a series of hardware components and software partners and signaled to carriers that it was open to various degrees of cooperation.



Speculation about Googles intention to enter the communications market continued to build through December In September, InformationWeek covered an Evalueserve study reporting that Google had filed several patent applications in the area of mobile telephony, the first commercially available smartphone running Android was the HTC Dream, also known as T-Mobile G1, announced on September 23, Since, Android has seen numerous updates which have improved the operating system, adding new features.



Each major release is named in order after a dessert or sugary treat, with the first few Android versions being called Cupcake, Donut, Eclair. In, Google launched its Nexus series of devices, a lineup in which Google partnered with different device manufacturers to produce new devices and introduce new Android versions.



System on a chip — A system on a chip or system on chip is an integrated circuit that integrates all components of a computer or other electronic systems. It may contain digital, analog, mixed-signal, and often radio-frequency functions—all on a single substrate, SoCs are very common in the mobile computing market because of their low power-consumption.



A typical application is in the area of embedded systems, the contrast with a microcontroller, SoC integrates microcontroller with advanced peripherals like graphics processing unit, Wi-Fi module, or coprocessor.



As long as we remember that the SoC does not necessarily contain built-in memory, in general, we can distinguish three types of SoC. When it is not feasible to construct a SoC for a particular application, in large volumes, SoC is believed to be more cost-effective than SiP since it increases the yield of the fabrication and because its packaging is simpler.



Another option, as seen for example in cell phones, is package on package stacking during board assembly. The SoC includes processors and numerous digital peripherals, and comes in a ball grid package with lower and upper connections.



The lower balls connect to the board and various peripherals, with the balls in a ring holding the memory buses used to access NAND flash. Memory packages could come from multiple vendors, DMA controllers route data directly between external interfaces and memory, bypassing the processor core and thereby increasing the data throughput of the SoC.



A SoC consists of both the hardware, described above, and the controlling the microcontroller, microprocessor or DSP cores, peripherals. The design flow for a SoC aims to develop hardware and software in parallel.



Most SoCs are developed from pre-qualified hardware blocks for the elements described above. Of particular importance are the protocol stacks that drive industry-standard interfaces like USB, the hardware blocks are put together using CAD tools, the software modules are integrated using a software-development environment.



Once the architecture of the SoC has been defined, any new elements are written in an abstract language termed RTL which defines the circuit behaviour. These elements are connected together in the same RTL language to create the full SoC design, chips are verified for logical correctness before being sent to foundry.



This process is called functional verification and it accounts for a significant portion of the time, with the growing complexity of chips, hardware verification languages like SystemVerilog, SystemC, e, and OpenVera are being used.



Bugs found in the stage are reported to the designer. Qualcomm — Qualcomm is an American multinational semiconductor and telecommunications equipment company that designs and markets wireless telecommunications products and services.



It derives most of its revenue from chipmaking and the bulk of its profit from patent licensing businesses, the company headquarters are located in San Diego, California, United States, and has worldwide locations.



In, Qualcomm began the design of the first CDMA-based cellular base station and this work began as a study contract from AirTouch which was facing a shortage of cellular capacity in Los Angeles.



Two years later Qualcomm began to manufacture CDMA cell phones, base stations, the initial base stations were not reliable and the technology was licensed wholly to Nortel in return for their work in improving the base station switching.



The naming rights belong to Qualcomm until In, Qualcomm sold its base station business to Ericsson, the company was now focused on developing and licensing wireless technologies and selling ASICs that implement them.



Steve Mollenkopf was promoted to president and chief operating officer of the company, mollenkopfs appointment as CEO was announced on December 13, and took effect on March 4, He succeeded Paul E.



However, surprised by the release of the bit Apple A7 in September, furthermore, Qualcomm was facing anti-trust investigations in China, the European Union, and the United States. The combination of pressures caused a significant fall in Qualcomms profits.



In July, the company cut 4, jobs or about 15 percent of its 31, current workforce due to decline of sales, executive management knew this was coming so they came up with a plan to retain its employees.



However, instead of paying reasonable salary, executive management used this plan as a justification to give themselves a big payout first and then lay off employees later. In December, Qualcomm Inc.



Central processing unit — The computer industry has used the term central processing unit at least since the early s. The form, design and implementation of CPUs have changed over the course of their history, most modern CPUs are microprocessors, meaning they are contained on a single integrated circuit chip.



An IC that contains a CPU may also contain memory, peripheral interfaces, some computers employ a multi-core processor, which is a single chip containing two or more CPUs called cores, in that context, one can speak of such single chips as sockets.



Array processors or vector processors have multiple processors that operate in parallel, there also exists the concept of virtual CPUs which are an abstraction of dynamical aggregated computational resources.



Since the term CPU is generally defined as a device for software execution, the idea of a stored-program computer was already present in the design of J. EDVAC was designed to perform a number of instructions of various types.



Significantly, the programs written for EDVAC were to be stored in high-speed computer memory rather than specified by the wiring of the computer. Early CPUs were custom designs used as part of a larger, however, this method of designing custom CPUs for a particular application has largely given way to the development of multi-purpose processors produced in large quantities.



This standardization began in the era of discrete transistor mainframes and minicomputers and has accelerated with the popularization of the integrated circuit. The IC has allowed increasingly complex CPUs to be designed and manufactured to tolerances on the order of nanometers, both the miniaturization and standardization of CPUs have increased the presence of digital devices in modern life far beyond the limited application of dedicated computing machines.



Modern microprocessors appear in electronic devices ranging from automobiles to cellphones, the so-called Harvard architecture of the Harvard Mark I, which was completed before EDVAC, also utilized a stored-program design using punched paper tape rather than electronic memory.



Relays and vacuum tubes were used as switching elements, a useful computer requires thousands or tens of thousands of switching devices. The overall speed of a system is dependent on the speed of the switches, tube computers like EDVAC tended to average eight hours between failures, whereas relay computers like the Harvard Mark I failed very rarely.



In the end, tube-based CPUs became dominant because the significant speed advantages afforded generally outweighed the reliability problems, most of these early synchronous CPUs ran at low clock rates compared to modern microelectronic designs.



Clock signal frequencies ranging from kHz to 4 MHz were very common at this time, the design complexity of CPUs increased as various technologies facilitated building smaller and more reliable electronic devices.



Multi-core processor — A multi-core processor is a single computing component with two or more independent actual processing units, which are units that read and execute program instructions.



The instructions are ordinary CPU instructions, but the multiple cores can run multiple instructions at the same time, manufacturers typically integrate the cores onto a single integrated circuit die, or onto multiple dies in a single chip package.



A multi-core processor implements multiprocessing in a physical package. Designers may couple cores in a multi-core device tightly or loosely, for example, cores may or may not share caches, and they may implement message passing or shared-memory inter-core communication methods.



Common network topologies to interconnect cores include bus, ring, two-dimensional mesh, homogeneous multi-core systems include only identical cores, heterogeneous multi-core systems have cores that are not identical.



Just as with single-processor systems, cores in multi-core systems may implement architectures such as VLIW, superscalar, Multi-core processors are widely used across many application domains, including general-purpose, embedded, network, digital signal processing, and graphics.



The improvement in performance gained by the use of a multi-core processor depends very much on the algorithms used. In particular, possible gains are limited by the fraction of the software that can run in parallel simultaneously on multiple cores, most applications, however, are not accelerated so much unless programmers invest a prohibitive amount of effort in re-factoring the whole problem.



The parallelization of software is a significant ongoing topic of research, the terms multi-core and dual-core most commonly refer to some sort of central processing unit, but are sometimes also applied to digital signal processors and system on a chip.



This article uses the terms multi-core and dual-core for CPUs manufactured on the integrated circuit. In contrast to systems, the term multi-CPU refers to multiple physically separate processing-units.



The terms many-core and massively multi-core are sometimes used to describe multi-core architectures with a high number of cores. Some systems use many soft microprocessor cores placed on a single FPGA, each core can be considered a semiconductor intellectual property core as well as a CPU core.



While manufacturing technology improves, reducing the size of individual gates and these physical limitations can cause significant heat dissipation and data synchronization problems.



Various other methods are used to improve CPU performance, some instruction-level parallelism methods such as superscalar pipelining are suitable for many applications, but are inefficient for others that contain difficult-to-predict code.



Many applications are better suited to thread-level parallelism methods, and multiple independent CPUs are commonly used to increase a systems overall TLP, a combination of increased available space and the demand for increased TLP led to the development of multi-core CPUs.



Several business motives drive the development of multi-core architectures, for decades, it was possible to improve performance of a CPU by shrinking the area of the integrated circuit, which reduced the cost per device on the IC.



Alternatively, for the circuit area, more transistors could be used in the design. Hertz — The hertz is the unit of frequency in the International System of Units and is defined as one cycle per second.



It is named for Heinrich Rudolf Hertz, the first person to provide proof of the existence of electromagnetic waves. Hertz are commonly expressed in SI multiples kilohertz, megahertz, gigahertz, kilo means thousand, mega meaning million, giga meaning billion and tera for trillion.



Some of the units most common uses are in the description of waves and musical tones, particularly those used in radio-. It is also used to describe the speeds at which computers, the hertz is equivalent to cycles per second, i.



One hertz simply means one cycle per second, Hz means one hundred cycles per second, and so on. The unit may be applied to any periodic event—for example, a clock might be said to tick at 1 Hz, the rate of aperiodic or stochastic events occur is expressed in reciprocal second or inverse second in general or, the specific case of radioactive decay, becquerels.



This SI unit is named after Heinrich Hertz, as with every International System of Units unit named for a person, the first letter of its symbol is upper case.



Note that degree Celsius conforms to this rule because the d is lowercase. The name was established by the International Electrotechnical Commission in, the term cycles per second was largely replaced by hertz by the s.



One hobby magazine, Electronics Illustrated, declared their intention to stick with the traditional kc. Humans perceive frequency of waves as pitch. Each musical note corresponds to a frequency which can be measured in hertz.



An infants ear is able to perceive frequencies ranging from 20 Hz to 20, Hz, the range of ultrasound, infrasound and other physical vibrations such as molecular and atomic vibrations extends from a few femtoHz into the terahertz range and beyond.



Electromagnetic radiation is described by its frequency—the number of oscillations of the perpendicular electric and magnetic fields per second—expressed in hertz.



Radio frequency radiation is measured in kilohertz, megahertz, or gigahertz. Graphics processing unit — GPUs are used in embedded systems, mobile phones, personal computers, workstations, and game consoles.



Arcade system boards have been using specialized graphics chips since the s, in early video game hardware, the RAM for frame buffers was expensive, so video chips composited data together as the display was being scanned out on the monitor.



Fujitsus MB video shifter was used to accelerate the drawing of sprite graphics for various s arcade games from Taito and Midway, such as Gun Fight, Sea Wolf, the Namco Galaxian arcade system in used specialized graphics hardware supporting RGB color, multi-colored sprites and tilemap backgrounds.



In the home market, the Atari in used a video shifter called the Television Interface Adaptor, machine code subroutines could be triggered on scan lines by setting a bit on a display list instruction.



ANTIC also supported smooth vertical and horizontal scrolling independent of the CPU and it became one of the best known of what were known as graphics processing units in the s.



The Williams Electronics arcade games Robotron,, Joust, Sinistar, in, the Commodore Amiga featured a custom graphics chip, with a blitter unit accelerating bitmap manipulation, line draw, and area fill functions.



Also included is a coprocessor with its own instruction set, capable of manipulating graphics hardware registers in sync with the video beam. In, Texas Instruments released the TMS, the first microprocessor with on-chip graphics capabilities and it could run general-purpose code, but it had a very graphics-oriented instruction set.



In, this chip would become the basis of the Texas Instruments Graphics Architecture Windows accelerator cards, in, the IBM graphics system was released as one of the first video cards for IBM PC compatibles to implement fixed-function 2D primitives in electronic hardware.



Fujitsu later competed with the FM Towns computer, released in with support for a full 16,, color palette, in, the first dedicated polygonal 3D graphics boards were introduced in arcades with the Namco System 21 and Taito Air System.



In, S3 Graphics introduced the S3 86C, which its designers named after the Porsche as an implication of the performance increase it promised. The 86C spawned a host of imitators, by, all major PC graphics chip makers had added 2D acceleration support to their chips.



By this time, fixed-function Windows accelerators had surpassed expensive general-purpose graphics coprocessors in Windows performance, throughout the s, 2D GUI acceleration continued to evolve.



Gigabyte — The gigabyte is a multiple of the unit byte for digital information. The prefix giga means in the International System of Units, the unit symbol for the gigabyte is GB.



However, the term is used in some fields of computer science and information technology to denote bytes. The use of gigabyte may thus be ambiguous, to address this ambiguity, the International System of Quantities standardizes the binary prefixes which denote a series of integer powers of With these prefixes, a module that is labeled as having the size 1GB has one gibibyte of storage capacity.



The term gigabyte is commonly used to mean either bytes or bytes, the latter binary usage originated as compromise technical jargon for byte multiples that needed to be expressed in a power of 2, but lacked a convenient name.



As is approximately, roughly corresponding to SI multiples, in the International Electrotechnical Commission published standards for binary prefixes, requiring that the gigabyte strictly denote bytes and gibibyte denote bytes.



The file manager of Mac OS X version The binary definition uses powers of the base 2, as is the principle of binary computers. This usage is widely promulgated by some operating systems, such as Microsoft Windows in reference to computer memory and this definition is synonymous with the unambiguous unit gibibyte.



Since the first disk drive, the IBM, disk drive manufacturers expressed hard drive capacities using decimal prefixes, with the advent of gigabyte-range drive capacities, manufacturers based most consumer hard drive capacities in certain size classes expressed in decimal gigabytes, such as GB.



The exact capacity of a given model is usually slightly larger than the class designation. Practically all manufacturers of disk drives and flash-memory disk devices continue to define one gigabyte as bytes.



Some operating systems such as OS X express hard drive capacity or file size using decimal multipliers and this discrepancy causes confusion, as a disk with an advertised capacity of, for example, GB might be reported by the operating system as GB, meaning GiB.



As storage sizes increase and larger units are used, these differences even more pronounced. Some legal challenges have been waged over this confusion such as a lawsuit against drive manufacturer Western Digital, Western Digital settled the challenge and added explicit disclaimers to products that the usable capacity may differ from the advertised capacity.



Random-access memory — Random-access memory is a form of computer data storage which stores frequently used program instructions to increase the general speed of a system. A random-access memory device allows data items to be read or written in almost the same amount of time irrespective of the location of data inside the memory.



RAM contains multiplexing and demultiplexing circuitry, to connect the lines to the addressed storage for reading or writing the entry. Usually more than one bit of storage is accessed by the same address, in todays technology, random-access memory takes the form of integrated circuits.



RAM is normally associated with types of memory, where stored information is lost if power is removed. Other types of non-volatile memories exist that allow access for read operations. Integrated-circuit RAM chips came into the market in the early s, with the first commercially available DRAM chip, early computers used relays, mechanical counters or delay lines for main memory functions.



Ultrasonic delay lines could only reproduce data in the order it was written, drum memory could be expanded at relatively low cost but efficient retrieval of memory items required knowledge of the physical layout of the drum to optimize speed.



Latches built out of vacuum tube triodes, and later, out of transistors, were used for smaller and faster memories such as registers. Such registers were relatively large and too costly to use for large amounts of data, the first practical form of random-access memory was the Williams tube starting in It stored data as electrically charged spots on the face of a cathode ray tube, since the electron beam of the CRT could read and write the spots on the tube in any order, memory was random access.



The capacity of the Williams tube was a few hundred to around a thousand bits, but it was smaller, faster. In fact, rather than the Williams tube memory being designed for the SSEM, magnetic-core memory was invented in and developed up until the mids.



It became a form of random-access memory, relying on an array of magnetized rings. By changing the sense of each rings magnetization, data could be stored with one bit stored per ring, since every ring had a combination of address wires to select and read or write it, access to any memory location in any sequence was possible.



Magnetic core memory was the form of memory system until displaced by solid-state memory in integrated circuits. Data was stored in the capacitance of each transistor, and had to be periodically refreshed every few milliseconds before the charge could leak away.



MMC originally used a 1-bit serial interface. MMC can be used in devices that can use Secure Digital cards. Typically, an MMC is used as a medium for a portable device. For example, a camera would use an MMC for storing image files.



With an MMC reader, a user could copy the pictures taken with the camera off to his or her computer. Modern computers, both laptops and desktops, often have SD slots, which can additionally read MMCs if the operating system drivers can, MMCs are available in sizes up to and including GB.



They are used in almost every context in which cards are used, like cellular phones, digital audio players, digital cameras. While few companies build MMC slots into devices today, the card is still widely used in the industry as a primary means of integrated storage in portable devices.



This technology is a standard available to any company wanting to develop based on it. There is no royalty charged for devices which host an MMC, a membership with the MMC Association must be purchased in order to manufacture the cards themselves.



As of July, the latest specifications version 4. A highly detailed version is available on-line that contains information for writing an MMC driver. As of February, the latest specifications version 5.



Subscriber identity module — It is also possible to store contact information on many SIM cards. SIM cards can also be used in satellite phones, the SIM circuit is part of the function of a Universal Integrated Circuit Card physical smart card, which is usually made of PVC with embedded contacts and semiconductors.



The operating voltage of the majority of SIM cards launched before was 5 V. In order to allow interoperability of the applications, Java Card was taken as the solution of choice by ETSI, additional standards and specifications of interest are maintained by GlobalPlatform.



This is used by operators to store information on preferred networks. Battery electricity — An electric battery is a device consisting of one or more electrochemical cells with external connections provided to power electrical devices such as flashlights, smartphones, and electric cars.



When a battery is supplying power, its positive terminal is the cathode. The terminal marked negative is the source of electrons that when connected to a circuit will flow. It is the movement of ions within the battery which allows current to flow out of the battery to perform work.



Historically the term specifically referred to a device composed of multiple cells. Primary batteries are used once and discarded, the materials are irreversibly changed during discharge. Common examples are the battery used for flashlights and a multitude of portable electronic devices.



Secondary batteries can be discharged and recharged multiple times using mains power from a wall socket, examples include the lead-acid batteries used in vehicles and lithium-ion batteries used for portable electronics such as laptops and smartphones.



Batteries have much lower energy than common fuels such as gasoline. This is somewhat offset by the efficiency of electric motors in producing mechanical work. The usage of battery to describe a group of electrical devices dates to Benjamin Franklin, alessandro Volta built and described the first electrochemical battery, the voltaic pile, in This was a stack of copper and zinc plates, separated by brine-soaked paper disks, Volta did not understand that the voltage was due to chemical reactions.



Although early batteries were of value for experimental purposes, in practice their voltages fluctuated. It consisted of a pot filled with a copper sulfate solution, in which was immersed an unglazed earthenware container filled with sulfuric acid.



These wet cells used liquid electrolytes, which were prone to leakage and spillage if not handled correctly, many used glass jars to hold their components, which made them fragile and potentially dangerous.



These characteristics made wet cells unsuitable for portable appliances, near the end of the nineteenth century, the invention of dry cell batteries, which replaced the liquid electrolyte with a paste, made portable electrical devices practical.



Batteries convert chemical energy directly to electrical energy, a battery consists of some number of voltaic cells. Ampere hour — The commonly seen milliampere hour is one-thousandth of an ampere hour.



The ampere hour is used in measurements of electrochemical systems such as electroplating. A milliampere second is a unit of measure used in X-ray imaging, diagnostic imaging and this quantity is proportional to the total X-ray energy produced by a given X-ray tube operated at a particular voltage.



The same total dose can be delivered in different time periods depending on the X-ray tube current, an ampere hour is not a unit of energy. In a battery system, for example, accurate calculation of the energy delivered requires integration of the power delivered over the discharge interval, generally, the battery voltage varies during discharge, an average value or nominal value may be used to approximate the integration of power.



The Faraday constant is the charge on one mole of electrons and it is used in electrochemical calculations. An AA size dry cell has a capacity of about 2 to 3 ampere hours, automotive car batteries vary in capacity but a large automobile propelled by an internal combustion engine would have about a 50 ampere hour battery capacity.



Since one ampere hour can produce 0. Lithium polymer battery — A lithium polymer battery, or more correctly lithium-ion polymer battery, is a rechargeable battery of lithium-ion technology using a polymer electrolyte instead of the more common liquid electrolyte.



High conductivity semisolid polymers form the electrolyte for LiPo cells are being used in tablet computers, after that, other packaging forms evolved, including the pouch format now also called LiPo.



Lithium polymer cells have evolved from lithium-ion and lithium-metal batteries. The primary difference is instead of using a lithium-salt electrolyte held in an organic solvent.



A typical cell has four components, positive electrode, negative electrode, separator. The separator itself may be a polymer, such as a film of polyethylene or polypropylene, thus, even when the cell has a liquid electrolyte.



In addition to this, the electrode can be further decomposed in three parts, the lithium-transition-metal-oxide, a conductive additive, and a polymer binder of poly. The negative electrode material may have the three parts, only with carbon replacing the lithium-metal-oxide.



To prevent the electrodes from touching each other directly, a separator is in between which allows only the ions and not the electrode particles to migrate from one side to the other. For LiPo battery packs with cells connected in series, a specialised charger may monitor the charge on a per-cell basis so that all cells are brought to the state of charge.



Unlike lithium-ion cylindrical and prismatic cells, which have a metal case, LiPo cells have a flexible, foil-type case. LiPo cells provide manufacturers with compelling advantages and they can easily produce batteries of almost any desired shape.



Test reports warn of the risk of fire when the batteries are not used in accordance with the instructions, as of mid, LiPo packs of 1. Microphone — A microphone, colloquially nicknamed mic or mike, is a transducer that converts sound into an electrical signal.



Several different types of microphone are in use, which employ different methods to convert the air pressure variations of a wave to an electrical signal. Microphones typically need to be connected to a preamplifier before the signal can be recorded or reproduced, in order to speak to larger groups of people, a need arose to increase the volume of the human voice.



The earliest devices used to achieve this were acoustic megaphones, some of the first examples, from fifth century BC Greece, were theater masks with horn-shaped mouth openings that acoustically amplified the voice of actors in amphitheatres.



In, the English physicist Robert Hooke was the first to experiment with an other than air with the invention of the lovers telephone made of stretched wire with a cup attached at each end.



German inventor Johann Philipp Reis designed an early sound transmitter that used a strip attached to a vibrating membrane that would produce intermittent current.



Better results were achieved with the transmitter design in Scottish-American Alexander Graham Bells telephone of — the diaphragm was attached to a conductive rod in an acid solution.



These systems, however, gave a poor sound quality. The first microphone that enabled proper voice telephony was the carbon microphone and this was independently developed by David Edward Hughes in England and Emile Berliner and Thomas Edison in the US.



Although Edison was awarded the first patent in mid, Hughes had demonstrated his working device in front of many witnesses some years earlier, the carbon microphone is the direct prototype of todays microphones and was critical in the development of telephony, broadcasting and the recording industries.



Thomas Edison refined the carbon microphone into his carbon-button transmitter of and this microphone was employed at the first ever radio broadcast, a performance at the New York Metropolitan Opera House in Wente of Western Electric developed the next breakthrough with the first condenser microphone, in, the first practical moving coil microphone was built.



The Marconi Skykes or magnetophon, developed by Captain H. Also in, the microphone was introduced, another electromagnetic type, believed to have been developed by Harry F.



Over the years these microphones were developed by companies, most notably RCA that made large advancements in pattern control. With television and film technology booming there was demand for high fidelity microphones, electro-Voice responded with their Academy Award-winning shotgun microphone in During the second half of 20th century development advanced quickly with the Shure Brothers bringing out the SM58, digital was pioneered by Milab in with the DM The latest research developments include the use of optics, lasers and interferometers.



Active noise control — Active noise control, also known as noise cancellation, or active noise reduction, is a method for reducing unwanted sound by the addition of a second sound specifically designed to cancel the first.



Sound is a wave, which consists of alternating periods of compression and rarefaction. A noise-cancellation speaker emits a sound wave with the same amplitude, the waves combine to form a new wave, in a process called interference, and effectively cancel each other out — an effect which is called destructive interference.



Modern active noise control is achieved through the use of analog circuits or digital signal processing. This inverted signal is amplified and a transducer creates a sound wave directly proportional to the amplitude of the original waveform.



This effectively reduces the volume of the perceivable noise, a noise-cancellation speaker may be co-located with the sound source to be attenuated. In this case it must have the same power level as the source of the unwanted sound.



Alternatively, the transducer emitting the cancellation signal may be located at the location where sound attenuation is wanted and this requires a much lower power level for cancellation but is effective only for a single user.



In small enclosed spaces global noise reduction can be achieved via multiple speakers and feedback microphones, applications can be 1-dimensional or 3-dimensional, depending on the type of zone to protect.



Periodic sounds, even ones, are easier to cancel than random sounds due to the repetition in the wave form. Protection of a 1-dimension zone is easier and requires one or two microphones and speakers to be effective.



Several commercial applications have been successful, noise-cancelling headphones, active mufflers, the term 1-dimension refers to a simple pistonic relationship between the noise and the active speaker or between the active speaker and the listener.



Protection of a 3-dimension zone requires many microphones and speakers, making it more expensive, high frequency waves are difficult to reduce in three dimensions due to their relatively short audio wavelength in air.



High frequency sounds above Hz tend to cancel and reinforce unpredictably from many directions, in sum, the most effective noise reduction in three-dimensional space involves low frequency sounds.



This is because an engines cyclic nature makes fast Fourier transform analysis, noise control is an active or passive means of reducing sound emissions, often for personal comfort, environmental considerations or legal compliance.



Active noise control is sound reduction using a power source, passive noise control is sound reduction by noise-isolating materials such as insulation, sound-absorbing tiles, or a muffler rather than a power source.



Active noise canceling is best suited for low frequencies, for higher frequencies, the spacing requirements for free space and zone of silence techniques become prohibitive.



In acoustic cavity and duct based systems, the number of nodes grows rapidly with increasing frequency, passive treatments become more effective at higher frequencies and often provide an adequate solution without the need for active control.



Gyroscope — A gyroscope is a spinning wheel or disc in which the axis of rotation is free to assume any orientation by itself. When rotating, the orientation of this axis is unaffected by tilting or rotation of the mounting, according to the conservation of angular momentum, because of this, gyroscopes are useful for measuring or maintaining orientation.



Due to their precision, gyroscopes are used in gyrotheodolites to maintain direction in tunnel mining. Gyroscopes can be used to construct gyrocompasses, which complement or replace magnetic compasses, a gyroscope is a wheel mounted in two or three gimbals, which are a pivoted supports that allow the rotation of the wheel about a single axis.



In the case of a gyroscope with two gimbals, the gimbal, which is the gyroscope frame, is mounted so as to pivot about an axis in its own plane determined by the support.



This outer gimbal possesses one degree of freedom and its axis possesses none. The inner gimbal is mounted in the frame so as to pivot about an axis in its own plane that is always perpendicular to the pivotal axis of the gyroscope frame.



This inner gimbal has two degrees of rotational freedom, the axle of the spinning wheel defines the spin axis. The rotor is constrained to spin about an axis, which is perpendicular to the axis of the inner gimbal.



It does not exactly correspond to the borders of its various types of constituents. From the time of Herodotus a minority of geographers have rejected the three-continent system on the grounds there is no or is no substantial physical separation between them.



It can also be considered a subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the west and south by the Pacific Ocean, and to the southeast by South America and the Caribbean Sea.



North America covers an area of about 24,, square kilometers, about North America is the third largest continent by area, following Asia and Africa, and the fourth by population after Asia, Africa, and Europe.



In, its population was estimated at nearly million people in 23 independent states, or about 7. The so-called Paleo-Indian period is taken to have lasted until about 10, years ago, the Classic stage spans roughly the 6th to 13th centuries.



The Pre-Columbian era ended with the migrations and the arrival of European settlers during the Age of Discovery. Present-day cultural and ethnic patterns reflect different kind of interactions between European colonists, indigenous peoples, African slaves and their descendants, European influences are strongest in the northern parts of the continent while indigenous and African influences are relatively stronger in the south.



Vespucci, who explored South America between and, was the first European to suggest that the Americas were not the East Indies, but a different landmass previously unknown by Europeans.



He used the Latinized version of Vespuccis name, but in its feminine form America, following the examples of Europa, Asia and Africa. Later, other mapmakers extended the name America to the continent, In Some argue that the convention is to use the surname for naming discoveries except in the case of royalty, a minutely explored belief that has been advanced is that America was named for a Spanish sailor bearing the ancient Visigothic name of Amairick.



Another is that the name is rooted in a Native American language, the term North America maintains various definitions in accordance with location and context. In Canadian English, North America may be used to refer to the United States, alternatively, usage sometimes includes Greenland and Mexico, as well as offshore islands.



Smartphone — A smartphone is a mobile phone with an advanced mobile operating system that combines features of a personal computer operating system with other features useful for mobile or handheld use.



In, the Japanese firm NTT DoCoMo released the first smartphones to achieve mass adoption within a country, smartphones became widespread in the late s. Most of those produced from onward have high-speed mobile broadband 4G LTE, motion sensors, in the third quarter of, one billion smartphones were in use worldwide.



Global smartphone sales surpassed the sales figures for regular cell phones in early, devices that combined telephony and computing were first conceptualized by Nikola Tesla in and Theodore Paraskevakos in and patented in, and were offered for sale beginning in Paraskevakos was the first to introduce the concepts of intelligence, data processing and they were installed at Peoples Telephone Company in Leesburg, Alabama and were demonstrated to several telephone companies.



The original and historic working models are still in the possession of Paraskevakos, the first mobile phone to incorporate PDA features was a prototype developed by Frank Canova in while at IBM and demonstrated that year at the COMDEX computer industry trade show.



It included PDA features and other mobile applications such as maps, stock reports. A refined version was marketed to consumers in by BellSouth under the name Simon Personal Communicator, the Simon was the first commercially available device that could be properly referred to as a smartphone, although it was not called that in The two components were attached by a hinge in what known as a clamshell design, with the display above.



The PDA provided e-mail, calendar, address book, calculator and notebook applications, text-based Web browsing, when closed, the device could be used as a digital cellular phone.



The first device marketed as a smartphone, it combined the functions of a phone and PDA. Form factor mobile phones — The form factor of a mobile phone is its size, shape, and style, as well as the layout and position of its major components.



The name is derived from the resemblance to a chocolate bar in size. This form factor is used by a variety of manufacturers, such as Nokia. Bar type mobile phones commonly have the screen and keypad on a single face, the Samsung SPH-M has a unique bar style, offering different devices on either side of the bar, a phone on one side, and a digital audio player on the other.



Sony Ericsson also had a well-known MarsBar phone model CM-H, brick is a slang term almost always used to refer to large, outdated bar-type phones, typically early mobile phones with large batteries and electronics.



Such early mobile phones, such as the Motorola DynaTAC, have been displaced by newer models which offer greater portability thanks to smaller antennas.



A slate or touchscreen phone is a subset of the bar form that, like a computer, has few physical buttons, instead relying upon a touchscreen. The first commercially available touchscreen phone was the IBM Simon Personal Communicator, the iPhone released in is largely responsible for the influence and achievement of this design as it is currently conceived.



Since mids almost all come in touchscreen slate form. Phablets typically have screens that measure between 5. When flipped open, the speaker and microphone are placed closer to the operators ear and mouth.



When flipped shut, the phone becomes smaller and more portable than when it is opened for use. Motorola was once owner of a trademark for the flip phone. Motorola was the manufacturer of the famed StarTAC flip phone, in, Motorola introduced a different kind of flip phone with its Backflip smartphone.



When closed, one side is the screen and the other is a physical QWERTY keyboard, the hinge is on a long edge of the phone instead of a short edge, and when flipped out the screen is above the keyboard.



Clamshell came to be used as generic for this form factor, flip phone referred to phones that opened on the vertical axis. Mobile operating system — A mobile operating system is an operating system for smartphones, tablets, or other mobile devices.



This distinction is becoming blurred in some operating systems that are hybrids made for both uses. So-called mobile operating systems, or even only smartphones running them, Mobile operating systems, are now, as of late, the most used kind, with traditional desktop OS, now a minority used kind, see usage share of operating systems.



However, variations occur in popularity by regions, while desktop-minority also applies on some days in e. By the end of, over million smartphones were sold with Research has shown that these systems may contain a range of security vulnerabilities permitting malicious base stations to gain high levels of control over the mobile device.



Mobile operating system milestones mirror the development of mobile phones and smartphones, — The first smartphone, the IBM Simon, has a touchscreen, email, and PDA features. Android Lollipop — Android Lollipop is a codename for the Android mobile operating system developed by Google, spanning versions between 5.



Its source code was available on November 3, Lollipop is succeeded by Marshmallow, which was released in October, Android 5. Part of the presentation was dedicated to a new design language referred to as material design.



Seams and shadows provide meaning about what you can touch, the material design language will not only be used on Android, but across Googles suite of web software as well, providing a consistent experience across all platforms.



A do-not-disturb feature is added for notifications. The recent apps menu was redesigned to use a stack of cards to represent open apps. Individual apps can also display multiple cards in the recents menu, Lollipop also contains major new platform features for developers, with over 5, new APIs added for use by applications.



For example, there is the possibility to save photos in a raw image format, additionally, the Dalvik virtual machine was officially replaced by Android Runtime, which is a new runtime environment that was introduced as a technology preview in KitKat.



ART is a cross-platform runtime which supports the x86, ARM, unlike Dalvik, which uses just-in-time compilation, ART compiles apps upon installation, which are then run exclusively from the compiled version from then on.



This technique removes the processing associated with the JIT process. Lollipop also aims to improve battery consumption through a series of known as Project Volta. The new developer tool called Battery Historian can be used for tracking battery consumption by apps while in use, the Android Extension Pack APIs also provide graphics functions such as new shaders, aiming to provide PC-level graphics for 3D games on Android devices.



A number of system-level, enterprise-oriented features were introduced under the banner Android for Work. Lollipop was, additionally, to have device encryption enabled by default on all devices, however, due to performance issues.



Android Marshmallow — Android Marshmallow is the sixth major version of the Android operating system. First released as a build on May 28,, it was officially released on October 5, Marshmallow primarily focuses on improving the user experience of its predecessor.



As of 6 March, A new Assist API allows information from an app, including text. This system is used by the Google Search app feature Google Now on Tap, by holding the Home button or using a voice command, on-screen cards are generated which display information, suggestions, and actions related to the content.



Direct Share allows Share menus to display recently used combinations of contacts, adoptable storage allows a newly inserted SD card or other secondary storage media to be designated as either portable or internal storage.



When designated as Internal storage, the media is reformatted with an encrypted ext4 file system. Existing data are migrated to the storage, and normal operation of the device becomes dependent on the presence of the media.



Apps and operating system functions will not function if the adopted storage device is removed. If the user access to the storage media, the adopted storage can be forgotten. Android Marshmallow introduces a redesigned application permissions model, apps are no longer automatically granted all of their specified permissions at installation time.



An opt-in system is now used, in which users are prompted to grant or deny individual permissions to an application when they are needed for the first time, applications remember the grants, which can be revoked by the user at any time.



The new permissions model is used only by applications developed for Marshmallow using its software development kit, permissions can still be revoked for those apps, though this might prevent them from working properly, and a warning is displayed to that effect.



In this state, network connectivity and background processing is restricted, additionally, network access by apps is deferred if the user has not recently interacted with the app. System on a chip — A system on a chip or system on chip is an integrated circuit that integrates all components of a computer or other electronic systems.



It may contain digital, analog, mixed-signal, and often radio-frequency functions—all on a single substrate, SoCs are very common in the mobile computing market because of their low power-consumption.



A typical application is in the area of embedded systems, the contrast with a microcontroller, SoC integrates microcontroller with advanced peripherals like graphics processing unit, Wi-Fi module, or coprocessor.



As long as we remember that the SoC does not necessarily contain built-in memory, in general, we can distinguish three types of SoC. When it is not feasible to construct a SoC for a particular application, in large volumes, SoC is believed to be more cost-effective than SiP since it increases the yield of the fabrication and because its packaging is simpler.



Another option, as seen for example in cell phones, is package on package stacking during board assembly. The SoC includes processors and numerous digital peripherals, and comes in a ball grid package with lower and upper connections.



The lower balls connect to the board and various peripherals, with the balls in a ring holding the memory buses used to access NAND flash. Memory packages could come from multiple vendors, DMA controllers route data directly between external interfaces and memory, bypassing the processor core and thereby increasing the data throughput of the SoC.



A SoC consists of both the hardware, described above, and the controlling the microcontroller, microprocessor or DSP cores, peripherals. The design flow for a SoC aims to develop hardware and software in parallel.



Most SoCs are developed from pre-qualified hardware blocks for the elements described above. Of particular importance are the protocol stacks that drive industry-standard interfaces like USB, the hardware blocks are put together using CAD tools, the software modules are integrated using a software-development environment.



Once the architecture of the SoC has been defined, any new elements are written in an abstract language termed RTL which defines the circuit behaviour. These elements are connected together in the same RTL language to create the full SoC design, chips are verified for logical correctness before being sent to foundry.



This process is called functional verification and it accounts for a significant portion of the time, with the growing complexity of chips, hardware verification languages like SystemVerilog, SystemC, e, and OpenVera are being used.



Bugs found in the stage are reported to the designer. Qualcomm — Qualcomm is an American multinational semiconductor and telecommunications equipment company that designs and markets wireless telecommunications products and services.



It derives most of its revenue from chipmaking and the bulk of its profit from patent licensing businesses, the company headquarters are located in San Diego, California, United States, and has worldwide locations.



In, Qualcomm began the design of the first CDMA-based cellular base station and this work began as a study contract from AirTouch which was facing a shortage of cellular capacity in Los Angeles. Two years later Qualcomm began to manufacture CDMA cell phones, base stations, the initial base stations were not reliable and the technology was licensed wholly to Nortel in return for their work in improving the base station switching.



The naming rights belong to Qualcomm until In, Qualcomm sold its base station business to Ericsson, the company was now focused on developing and licensing wireless technologies and selling ASICs that implement them.



Steve Mollenkopf was promoted to president and chief operating officer of the company, mollenkopfs appointment as CEO was announced on December 13, and took effect on March 4, He succeeded Paul E.



However, surprised by the release of the bit Apple A7 in September, furthermore, Qualcomm was facing anti-trust investigations in China, the European Union, and the United States. The combination of pressures caused a significant fall in Qualcomms profits.



In July, the company cut 4, jobs or about 15 percent of its 31, current workforce due to decline of sales, executive management knew this was coming so they came up with a plan to retain its employees.



However, instead of paying reasonable salary, executive management used this plan as a justification to give themselves a big payout first and then lay off employees later. In December, Qualcomm Inc.



Central processing unit — The computer industry has used the term central processing unit at least since the early s. The form, design and implementation of CPUs have changed over the course of their history, most modern CPUs are microprocessors, meaning they are contained on a single integrated circuit chip.



An IC that contains a CPU may also contain memory, peripheral interfaces, some computers employ a multi-core processor, which is a single chip containing two or more CPUs called cores, in that context, one can speak of such single chips as sockets.



Array processors or vector processors have multiple processors that operate in parallel, there also exists the concept of virtual CPUs which are an abstraction of dynamical aggregated computational resources.



Since the term CPU is generally defined as a device for software execution, the idea of a stored-program computer was already present in the design of J. EDVAC was designed to perform a number of instructions of various types.



Significantly, the programs written for EDVAC were to be stored in high-speed computer memory rather than specified by the wiring of the computer. Early CPUs were custom designs used as part of a larger, however, this method of designing custom CPUs for a particular application has largely given way to the development of multi-purpose processors produced in large quantities.



This standardization began in the era of discrete transistor mainframes and minicomputers and has accelerated with the popularization of the integrated circuit. The IC has allowed increasingly complex CPUs to be designed and manufactured to tolerances on the order of nanometers, both the miniaturization and standardization of CPUs have increased the presence of digital devices in modern life far beyond the limited application of dedicated computing machines.



Modern microprocessors appear in electronic devices ranging from automobiles to cellphones, the so-called Harvard architecture of the Harvard Mark I, which was completed before EDVAC, also utilized a stored-program design using punched paper tape rather than electronic memory.



Relays and vacuum tubes were used as switching elements, a useful computer requires thousands or tens of thousands of switching devices. The overall speed of a system is dependent on the speed of the switches, tube computers like EDVAC tended to average eight hours between failures, whereas relay computers like the Harvard Mark I failed very rarely.



In the end, tube-based CPUs became dominant because the significant speed advantages afforded generally outweighed the reliability problems, most of these early synchronous CPUs ran at low clock rates compared to modern microelectronic designs.



Clock signal frequencies ranging from kHz to 4 MHz were very common at this time, the design complexity of CPUs increased as various technologies facilitated building smaller and more reliable electronic devices.



Multi-core processor — A multi-core processor is a single computing component with two or more independent actual processing units, which are units that read and execute program instructions. The instructions are ordinary CPU instructions, but the multiple cores can run multiple instructions at the same time, manufacturers typically integrate the cores onto a single integrated circuit die, or onto multiple dies in a single chip package.



A multi-core processor implements multiprocessing in a physical package. Designers may couple cores in a multi-core device tightly or loosely, for example, cores may or may not share caches, and they may implement message passing or shared-memory inter-core communication methods.



Common network topologies to interconnect cores include bus, ring, two-dimensional mesh, homogeneous multi-core systems include only identical cores, heterogeneous multi-core systems have cores that are not identical.



Just as with single-processor systems, cores in multi-core systems may implement architectures such as VLIW, superscalar, Multi-core processors are widely used across many application domains, including general-purpose, embedded, network, digital signal processing, and graphics.



The improvement in performance gained by the use of a multi-core processor depends very much on the algorithms used. In particular, possible gains are limited by the fraction of the software that can run in parallel simultaneously on multiple cores, most applications, however, are not accelerated so much unless programmers invest a prohibitive amount of effort in re-factoring the whole problem.



The parallelization of software is a significant ongoing topic of research, the terms multi-core and dual-core most commonly refer to some sort of central processing unit, but are sometimes also applied to digital signal processors and system on a chip.



This article uses the terms multi-core and dual-core for CPUs manufactured on the integrated circuit. In contrast to systems, the term multi-CPU refers to multiple physically separate processing-units.



The terms many-core and massively multi-core are sometimes used to describe multi-core architectures with a high number of cores. Some systems use many soft microprocessor cores placed on a single FPGA, each core can be considered a semiconductor intellectual property core as well as a CPU core.



While manufacturing technology improves, reducing the size of individual gates and these physical limitations can cause significant heat dissipation and data synchronization problems. Various other methods are used to improve CPU performance, some instruction-level parallelism methods such as superscalar pipelining are suitable for many applications, but are inefficient for others that contain difficult-to-predict code.



Many applications are better suited to thread-level parallelism methods, and multiple independent CPUs are commonly used to increase a systems overall TLP, a combination of increased available space and the demand for increased TLP led to the development of multi-core CPUs.



Several business motives drive the development of multi-core architectures, for decades, it was possible to improve performance of a CPU by shrinking the area of the integrated circuit, which reduced the cost per device on the IC.



Alternatively, for the circuit area, more transistors could be used in the design. Hertz — The hertz is the unit of frequency in the International System of Units and is defined as one cycle per second.



It is named for Heinrich Rudolf Hertz, the first person to provide proof of the existence of electromagnetic waves. Hertz are commonly expressed in SI multiples kilohertz, megahertz, gigahertz, kilo means thousand, mega meaning million, giga meaning billion and tera for trillion.



Some of the units most common uses are in the description of waves and musical tones, particularly those used in radio-. It is also used to describe the speeds at which computers, the hertz is equivalent to cycles per second, i.



One hertz simply means one cycle per second, Hz means one hundred cycles per second, and so on. The unit may be applied to any periodic event—for example, a clock might be said to tick at 1 Hz, the rate of aperiodic or stochastic events occur is expressed in reciprocal second or inverse second in general or, the specific case of radioactive decay, becquerels.



This SI unit is named after Heinrich Hertz, as with every International System of Units unit named for a person, the first letter of its symbol is upper case. Note that degree Celsius conforms to this rule because the d is lowercase.



The name was established by the International Electrotechnical Commission in, the term cycles per second was largely replaced by hertz by the s. One hobby magazine, Electronics Illustrated, declared their intention to stick with the traditional kc.



Humans perceive frequency of waves as pitch. Each musical note corresponds to a frequency which can be measured in hertz. An infants ear is able to perceive frequencies ranging from 20 Hz to 20, Hz, the range of ultrasound, infrasound and other physical vibrations such as molecular and atomic vibrations extends from a few femtoHz into the terahertz range and beyond.



Electromagnetic radiation is described by its frequency—the number of oscillations of the perpendicular electric and magnetic fields per second—expressed in hertz. Radio frequency radiation is measured in kilohertz, megahertz, or gigahertz.



Graphics processing unit — GPUs are used in embedded systems, mobile phones, personal computers, workstations, and game consoles. Arcade system boards have been using specialized graphics chips since the s, in early video game hardware, the RAM for frame buffers was expensive, so video chips composited data together as the display was being scanned out on the monitor.



Fujitsus MB video shifter was used to accelerate the drawing of sprite graphics for various s arcade games from Taito and Midway, such as Gun Fight, Sea Wolf, the Namco Galaxian arcade system in used specialized graphics hardware supporting RGB color, multi-colored sprites and tilemap backgrounds.



In the home market, the Atari in used a video shifter called the Television Interface Adaptor, machine code subroutines could be triggered on scan lines by setting a bit on a display list instruction.



ANTIC also supported smooth vertical and horizontal scrolling independent of the CPU and it became one of the best known of what were known as graphics processing units in the s.



The Williams Electronics arcade games Robotron,, Joust, Sinistar, in, the Commodore Amiga featured a custom graphics chip, with a blitter unit accelerating bitmap manipulation, line draw, and area fill functions.



Also included is a coprocessor with its own instruction set, capable of manipulating graphics hardware registers in sync with the video beam. In, Texas Instruments released the TMS, the first microprocessor with on-chip graphics capabilities and it could run general-purpose code, but it had a very graphics-oriented instruction set.



In, this chip would become the basis of the Texas Instruments Graphics Architecture Windows accelerator cards, in, the IBM graphics system was released as one of the first video cards for IBM PC compatibles to implement fixed-function 2D primitives in electronic hardware.



Fujitsu later competed with the FM Towns computer, released in with support for a full 16,, color palette, in, the first dedicated polygonal 3D graphics boards were introduced in arcades with the Namco System 21 and Taito Air System.



In, S3 Graphics introduced the S3 86C, which its designers named after the Porsche as an implication of the performance increase it promised. The 86C spawned a host of imitators, by, all major PC graphics chip makers had added 2D acceleration support to their chips.



By this time, fixed-function Windows accelerators had surpassed expensive general-purpose graphics coprocessors in Windows performance, throughout the s, 2D GUI acceleration continued to evolve.



Gigabyte — The gigabyte is a multiple of the unit byte for digital information. The prefix giga means in the International System of Units, the unit symbol for the gigabyte is GB.



However, the term is used in some fields of computer science and information technology to denote bytes. The use of gigabyte may thus be ambiguous, to address this ambiguity, the International System of Quantities standardizes the binary prefixes which denote a series of integer powers of With these prefixes, a module that is labeled as having the size 1GB has one gibibyte of storage capacity.



The term gigabyte is commonly used to mean either bytes or bytes, the latter binary usage originated as compromise technical jargon for byte multiples that needed to be expressed in a power of 2, but lacked a convenient name.



As is approximately, roughly corresponding to SI multiples, in the International Electrotechnical Commission published standards for binary prefixes, requiring that the gigabyte strictly denote bytes and gibibyte denote bytes.



The file manager of Mac OS X version The binary definition uses powers of the base 2, as is the principle of binary computers. This usage is widely promulgated by some operating systems, such as Microsoft Windows in reference to computer memory and this definition is synonymous with the unambiguous unit gibibyte.



Since the first disk drive, the IBM, disk drive manufacturers expressed hard drive capacities using decimal prefixes, with the advent of gigabyte-range drive capacities, manufacturers based most consumer hard drive capacities in certain size classes expressed in decimal gigabytes, such as GB.



The exact capacity of a given model is usually slightly larger than the class designation. Practically all manufacturers of disk drives and flash-memory disk devices continue to define one gigabyte as bytes.



Some operating systems such as OS X express hard drive capacity or file size using decimal multipliers and this discrepancy causes confusion, as a disk with an advertised capacity of, for example, GB might be reported by the operating system as GB, meaning GiB.



As storage sizes increase and larger units are used, these differences even more pronounced. Some legal challenges have been waged over this confusion such as a lawsuit against drive manufacturer Western Digital, Western Digital settled the challenge and added explicit disclaimers to products that the usable capacity may differ from the advertised capacity.



Random-access memory — Random-access memory is a form of computer data storage which stores frequently used program instructions to increase the general speed of a system.



A random-access memory device allows data items to be read or written in almost the same amount of time irrespective of the location of data inside the memory. RAM contains multiplexing and demultiplexing circuitry, to connect the lines to the addressed storage for reading or writing the entry.



Usually more than one bit of storage is accessed by the same address, in todays technology, random-access memory takes the form of integrated circuits. RAM is normally associated with types of memory, where stored information is lost if power is removed.



Other types of non-volatile memories exist that allow access for read operations. Integrated-circuit RAM chips came into the market in the early s, with the first commercially available DRAM chip, early computers used relays, mechanical counters or delay lines for main memory functions.



Ultrasonic delay lines could only reproduce data in the order it was written, drum memory could be expanded at relatively low cost but efficient retrieval of memory items required knowledge of the physical layout of the drum to optimize speed.



Latches built out of vacuum tube triodes, and later, out of transistors, were used for smaller and faster memories such as registers. Such registers were relatively large and too costly to use for large amounts of data, the first practical form of random-access memory was the Williams tube starting in It stored data as electrically charged spots on the face of a cathode ray tube, since the electron beam of the CRT could read and write the spots on the tube in any order, memory was random access.



The capacity of the Williams tube was a few hundred to around a thousand bits, but it was smaller, faster. In fact, rather than the Williams tube memory being designed for the SSEM, magnetic-core memory was invented in and developed up until the mids.



It became a form of random-access memory, relying on an array of magnetized rings. By changing the sense of each rings magnetization, data could be stored with one bit stored per ring, since every ring had a combination of address wires to select and read or write it, access to any memory location in any sequence was possible.



Magnetic core memory was the form of memory system until displaced by solid-state memory in integrated circuits. Data was stored in the capacitance of each transistor, and had to be periodically refreshed every few milliseconds before the charge could leak away.



MMC originally used a 1-bit serial interface. MMC can be used in devices that can use Secure Digital cards. Typically, an MMC is used as a medium for a portable device. For example, a camera would use an MMC for storing image files.



With an MMC reader, a user could copy the pictures taken with the camera off to his or her computer. Modern computers, both laptops and desktops, often have SD slots, which can additionally read MMCs if the operating system drivers can, MMCs are available in sizes up to and including GB.



They are used in almost every context in which cards are used, like cellular phones, digital audio players, digital cameras. While few companies build MMC slots into devices today, the card is still widely used in the industry as a primary means of integrated storage in portable devices.



This technology is a standard available to any company wanting to develop based on it. There is no royalty charged for devices which host an MMC, a membership with the MMC Association must be purchased in order to manufacture the cards themselves.



As of July, the latest specifications version 4. A highly detailed version is available on-line that contains information for writing an MMC driver. As of February, the latest specifications version 5.



Subscriber identity module — It is also possible to store contact information on many SIM cards. SIM cards can also be used in satellite phones, the SIM circuit is part of the function of a Universal Integrated Circuit Card physical smart card, which is usually made of PVC with embedded contacts and semiconductors.



The operating voltage of the majority of SIM cards launched before was 5 V. In order to allow interoperability of the applications, Java Card was taken as the solution of choice by ETSI, additional standards and specifications of interest are maintained by GlobalPlatform.



This is used by operators to store information on preferred networks. The standard was introduced in August by joint efforts between SanDisk, Panasonic and Toshiba as an improvement over MultiMediaCards, and has become the industry standard.



SDA today has about 1, member companies, the SDA uses several trademarked logos owned and licensed by SD-3C to enforce compliance with its specifications and assure users of compatibility.



There are many combinations of factors and device families, although as of The three form factors are the size, the mini size, and the micro size. Electrically passive adapters allow a card to fit and function in a device built for a larger card.



The SD cards small footprint is a storage medium for smaller, thinner. The second-generation Secure Digital card was developed to improve on the MultiMediaCard standard, which continued to evolve, Secure Digital changed the MMC design in several ways, Asymmetrical slots in the sides of the SD card prevent inserting it upside down.



Most SD cards are 2. The SD specification envisioned capacities and transfer rates exceeding those of MMC, for a comparison table, see below. While MMC uses a pin for data transfers, the SD card added a four-wire bus mode for higher data rates.



The SD card added Content Protection for Recordable Media security circuitry for digital rights management content-protection, full-size SD cards do not fit into the slimmer MMC slots, and other issues also affect the ability to use one format in a host device designed for the other.



Battery electricity — An electric battery is a device consisting of one or more electrochemical cells with external connections provided to power electrical devices such as flashlights, smartphones, and electric cars.



When a battery is supplying power, its positive terminal is the cathode. The terminal marked negative is the source of electrons that when connected to a circuit will flow. It is the movement of ions within the battery which allows current to flow out of the battery to perform work.



Historically the term specifically referred to a device composed of multiple cells. Primary batteries are used once and discarded, the materials are irreversibly changed during discharge. Common examples are the battery used for flashlights and a multitude of portable electronic devices.



Secondary batteries can be discharged and recharged multiple times using mains power from a wall socket, examples include the lead-acid batteries used in vehicles and lithium-ion batteries used for portable electronics such as laptops and smartphones.



Batteries have much lower energy than common fuels such as gasoline. This is somewhat offset by the efficiency of electric motors in producing mechanical work. The usage of battery to describe a group of electrical devices dates to Benjamin Franklin, alessandro Volta built and described the first electrochemical battery, the voltaic pile, in This was a stack of copper and zinc plates, separated by brine-soaked paper disks, Volta did not understand that the voltage was due to chemical reactions.



Although early batteries were of value for experimental purposes, in practice their voltages fluctuated. It consisted of a pot filled with a copper sulfate solution, in which was immersed an unglazed earthenware container filled with sulfuric acid.



These wet cells used liquid electrolytes, which were prone to leakage and spillage if not handled correctly, many used glass jars to hold their components, which made them fragile and potentially dangerous.



These characteristics made wet cells unsuitable for portable appliances, near the end of the nineteenth century, the invention of dry cell batteries, which replaced the liquid electrolyte with a paste, made portable electrical devices practical.



Batteries convert chemical energy directly to electrical energy, a battery consists of some number of voltaic cells. Ampere hour — The commonly seen milliampere hour is one-thousandth of an ampere hour.



The ampere hour is used in measurements of electrochemical systems such as electroplating. A milliampere second is a unit of measure used in X-ray imaging, diagnostic imaging and this quantity is proportional to the total X-ray energy produced by a given X-ray tube operated at a particular voltage.



The same total dose can be delivered in different time periods depending on the X-ray tube current, an ampere hour is not a unit of energy. In a battery system, for example, accurate calculation of the energy delivered requires integration of the power delivered over the discharge interval, generally, the battery voltage varies during discharge, an average value or nominal value may be used to approximate the integration of power.



The Faraday constant is the charge on one mole of electrons and it is used in electrochemical calculations. An AA size dry cell has a capacity of about 2 to 3 ampere hours, automotive car batteries vary in capacity but a large automobile propelled by an internal combustion engine would have about a 50 ampere hour battery capacity.



Since one ampere hour can produce 0. Lithium polymer battery — A lithium polymer battery, or more correctly lithium-ion polymer battery, is a rechargeable battery of lithium-ion technology using a polymer electrolyte instead of the more common liquid electrolyte.



High conductivity semisolid polymers form the electrolyte for LiPo cells are being used in tablet computers, after that, other packaging forms evolved, including the pouch format now also called LiPo.



Lithium polymer cells have evolved from lithium-ion and lithium-metal batteries. The primary difference is instead of using a lithium-salt electrolyte held in an organic solvent.



A typical cell has four components, positive electrode, negative electrode, separator. The separator itself may be a polymer, such as a film of polyethylene or polypropylene, thus, even when the cell has a liquid electrolyte.



In addition to this, the electrode can be further decomposed in three parts, the lithium-transition-metal-oxide, a conductive additive, and a polymer binder of poly. The negative electrode material may have the three parts, only with carbon replacing the lithium-metal-oxide.



To prevent the electrodes from touching each other directly, a separator is in between which allows only the ions and not the electrode particles to migrate from one side to the other.



For LiPo battery packs with cells connected in series, a specialised charger may monitor the charge on a per-cell basis so that all cells are brought to the state of charge. Unlike lithium-ion cylindrical and prismatic cells, which have a metal case, LiPo cells have a flexible, foil-type case.



LiPo cells provide manufacturers with compelling advantages and they can easily produce batteries of almost any desired shape. Test reports warn of the risk of fire when the batteries are not used in accordance with the instructions, as of mid, LiPo packs of 1.



Microphone — A microphone, colloquially nicknamed mic or mike, is a transducer that converts sound into an electrical signal. Several different types of microphone are in use, which employ different methods to convert the air pressure variations of a wave to an electrical signal.



Microphones typically need to be connected to a preamplifier before the signal can be recorded or reproduced, in order to speak to larger groups of people, a need arose to increase the volume of the human voice.



The earliest devices used to achieve this were acoustic megaphones, some of the first examples, from fifth century BC Greece, were theater masks with horn-shaped mouth openings that acoustically amplified the voice of actors in amphitheatres.



In, the English physicist Robert Hooke was the first to experiment with an other than air with the invention of the lovers telephone made of stretched wire with a cup attached at each end.



German inventor Johann Philipp Reis designed an early sound transmitter that used a strip attached to a vibrating membrane that would produce intermittent current. Better results were achieved with the transmitter design in Scottish-American Alexander Graham Bells telephone of — the diaphragm was attached to a conductive rod in an acid solution.



These systems, however, gave a poor sound quality. The first microphone that enabled proper voice telephony was the carbon microphone and this was independently developed by David Edward Hughes in England and Emile Berliner and Thomas Edison in the US.



Although Edison was awarded the first patent in mid, Hughes had demonstrated his working device in front of many witnesses some years earlier, the carbon microphone is the direct prototype of todays microphones and was critical in the development of telephony, broadcasting and the recording industries.



Thomas Edison refined the carbon microphone into his carbon-button transmitter of and this microphone was employed at the first ever radio broadcast, a performance at the New York Metropolitan Opera House in Wente of Western Electric developed the next breakthrough with the first condenser microphone, in, the first practical moving coil microphone was built.



The Marconi Skykes or magnetophon, developed by Captain H. Also in, the microphone was introduced, another electromagnetic type, believed to have been developed by Harry F.



Over the years these microphones were developed by companies, most notably RCA that made large advancements in pattern control. With television and film technology booming there was demand for high fidelity microphones, electro-Voice responded with their Academy Award-winning shotgun microphone in During the second half of 20th century development advanced quickly with the Shure Brothers bringing out the SM58, digital was pioneered by Milab in with the DM The latest research developments include the use of optics, lasers and interferometers.



Active noise control — Active noise control, also known as noise cancellation, or active noise reduction, is a method for reducing unwanted sound by the addition of a second sound specifically designed to cancel the first.



Sound is a wave, which consists of alternating periods of compression and rarefaction. A noise-cancellation speaker emits a sound wave with the same amplitude, the waves combine to form a new wave, in a process called interference, and effectively cancel each other out — an effect which is called destructive interference.



Modern active noise control is achieved through the use of analog circuits or digital signal processing. This inverted signal is amplified and a transducer creates a sound wave directly proportional to the amplitude of the original waveform.



This effectively reduces the volume of the perceivable noise, a noise-cancellation speaker may be co-located with the sound source to be attenuated. In this case it must have the same power level as the source of the unwanted sound.



Alternatively, the transducer emitting the cancellation signal may be located at the location where sound attenuation is wanted and this requires a much lower power level for cancellation but is effective only for a single user.



In small enclosed spaces global noise reduction can be achieved via multiple speakers and feedback microphones, applications can be 1-dimensional or 3-dimensional, depending on the type of zone to protect.



Periodic sounds, even ones, are easier to cancel than random sounds due to the repetition in the wave form. Protection of a 1-dimension zone is easier and requires one or two microphones and speakers to be effective.



Several commercial applications have been successful, noise-cancelling headphones, active mufflers, the term 1-dimension refers to a simple pistonic relationship between the noise and the active speaker or between the active speaker and the listener.



Protection of a 3-dimension zone requires many microphones and speakers, making it more expensive, high frequency waves are difficult to reduce in three dimensions due to their relatively short audio wavelength in air.



High frequency sounds above Hz tend to cancel and reinforce unpredictably from many directions, in sum, the most effective noise reduction in three-dimensional space involves low frequency sounds.



This is because an engines cyclic nature makes fast Fourier transform analysis, noise control is an active or passive means of reducing sound emissions, often for personal comfort, environmental considerations or legal compliance.



Active noise control is sound reduction using a power source, passive noise control is sound reduction by noise-isolating materials such as insulation, sound-absorbing tiles, or a muffler rather than a power source.



Active noise canceling is best suited for low frequencies, for higher frequencies, the spacing requirements for free space and zone of silence techniques become prohibitive.



In acoustic cavity and duct based systems, the number of nodes grows rapidly with increasing frequency, passive treatments become more effective at higher frequencies and often provide an adequate solution without the need for active control.



Gyroscope — A gyroscope is a spinning wheel or disc in which the axis of rotation is free to assume any orientation by itself. When rotating, the orientation of this axis is unaffected by tilting or rotation of the mounting, according to the conservation of angular momentum, because of this, gyroscopes are useful for measuring or maintaining orientation.



Due to their precision, gyroscopes are used in gyrotheodolites to maintain direction in tunnel mining. Gyroscopes can be used to construct gyrocompasses, which complement or replace magnetic compasses, a gyroscope is a wheel mounted in two or three gimbals, which are a pivoted supports that allow the rotation of the wheel about a single axis.



In the case of a gyroscope with two gimbals, the gimbal, which is the gyroscope frame, is mounted so as to pivot about an axis in its own plane determined by the support. This outer gimbal possesses one degree of freedom and its axis possesses none.



The inner gimbal is mounted in the frame so as to pivot about an axis in its own plane that is always perpendicular to the pivotal axis of the gyroscope frame. This inner gimbal has two degrees of rotational freedom, the axle of the spinning wheel defines the spin axis.



The rotor is constrained to spin about an axis, which is perpendicular to the axis of the inner gimbal. So the rotor possesses three degrees of freedom and its axis possesses two.



The wheel responds to a force applied to the axis by a reaction force to the output axis. The behaviour of a gyroscope can be most easily appreciated by consideration of the front wheel of a bicycle.



If the wheel is leaned away from the vertical so that the top of the moves to the left. In other words, rotation on one axis of the turning wheel produces rotation of the third axis, a gyroscope flywheel will roll or resist about the output axis depending upon whether the output gimbals are of a free or fixed configuration.



Examples of some free-output-gimbal devices would be the attitude reference gyroscopes used to sense or measure the pitch, roll, the centre of gravity of the rotor can be in a fixed position.



Some gyroscopes have mechanical equivalents substituted for one or more of the elements, for example, the spinning rotor may be suspended in a fluid, instead of being pivotally mounted in gimbals.



In some special cases, the outer gimbal may be omitted so that the rotor has two degrees of freedom. Essentially, a gyroscope is a top combined with a pair of gimbals, Tops were invented in many different civilizations, including classical Greece, Rome, and China.



Accelerometer — An accelerometer is a device that measures proper acceleration, proper acceleration is not the same as coordinate acceleration. For example, an accelerometer at rest on the surface of the Earth will measure an acceleration due to Earths gravity, by contrast, accelerometers in free fall will measure zero.



Accelerometers have multiple applications in industry and science, highly sensitive accelerometers are components of inertial navigation systems for aircraft and missiles.



Accelerometers are used to detect and monitor vibration in rotating machinery, accelerometers are used in tablet computers and digital cameras so that images on screens are always displayed upright.



Accelerometers are used in drones for flight stabilisation, coordinated accelerometers can be used to measure differences in proper acceleration, particularly gravity, over their separation in space, i.



This gravity gradiometry is useful because absolute gravity is a weak effect, micromachined accelerometers are increasingly present in portable electronic devices and video game controllers, to detect the position of the device or provide for game input.



An accelerometer measures proper acceleration, which is the acceleration it experiences relative to freefall and is the acceleration felt by people and objects. Put another way, at any point in spacetime the equivalence principle guarantees the existence of an inertial frame.



Such accelerations are popularly denoted g-force, i. The reason for the appearance of an offset is Einsteins equivalence principle. For similar reasons, an accelerometer will read zero during any type of free fall and this includes use in a coasting spaceship in deep space far from any mass, a spaceship orbiting the Earth, an airplane in a parabolic zero-g arc, or any free-fall in vacuum.



Another example is free-fall at a high altitude that atmospheric effects can be neglected. However this does not include a fall in air resistance produces drag forces that reduce the acceleration.



At terminal velocity the accelerometer will indicate 1 g acceleration upwards, Acceleration is quantified in the SI unit metres per second per second, in the cgs unit gal, or popularly in terms of standard gravity.



For the practical purpose of finding the acceleration of objects with respect to the Earth, such as for use in a navigation system. This can be obtained either by calibrating the device at rest, conceptually, an accelerometer behaves as a damped mass on a spring.



When the accelerometer experiences an acceleration, the mass is displaced to the point that the spring is able to accelerate the mass at the rate as the casing. The displacement is measured to give the acceleration.



Proximity sensor — A proximity sensor is a sensor able to detect the presence of nearby objects without any physical contact. A proximity sensor often emits a field or a beam of electromagnetic radiation.



The object being sensed is often referred to as the proximity sensors target, different proximity sensor targets demand different sensors.





Coments:


26.03.2018 Yozshubar :

A list of every Word of the Year selection released by oneplusonemobilepriceinindiafeatures. blogspot. com oneplusonemobilepriceinindiafeatures. blogspot. com's first Word of the Year was chosen in NewsRepeat Provides you the Latest news and updates about on going events and issues around the oneplusonemobilepriceinindiafeatures. blogspot. coming cyber news and latest technology. http://www. Age of Empires|:The Conquerors game is waste of time oneplusonemobilepriceinindiafeatures. blogspot. com overall graphics is oneplusonemobilepriceinindiafeatures. blogspot. com from my point of view its not fully satisfied game. Alre.









Duzahn


A list of every Word of the Year selection released by oneplusonemobilepriceinindiafeatures. blogspot. com oneplusonemobilepriceinindiafeatures. blogspot. com's first Word of the Year was chosen in










Комментариев нет:

Отправить комментарий