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These states remained under the full control of their hereditary rulers, with no popular government. Congress "extremist" Bal Gangadhar Tilak speaking in as the party split into the Moderates and the Extremists.
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Early modern period — Mortalities in Bihar famine of —74 prevented by importation of rice from Burma. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. However, there was opposition from both Muslim and Hindu elements who complained that the new procedures for census-taking and registration threatened to uncover female privacy. The rhetoric continued but it became an alibi for British misrule and racism.
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18.03.2018 - The Raj At War: First, the spread of Brahmanical religions was a two-way process of Sanskritization of local cults and localization of Brahmanical social order. Still other nomadic people, the Yuezhi, who were forced out of the Inner Asian steppes of Mongolia, drove the Shakas out of northwestern India and established the Kushana Kingdom first century B. Within the princely states external affairs, defence and most communications were under British control. Moreover, Indian landlords had a stake in the cash crop system and discouraged innovation. Since its independence inIndia has maintained cordial relations with most nations. Submitted by Jan van der Crabbenpublished on 15 December under the following license:
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20.03.2018 - Mesopotamia and Egypt were longer-lived, but coexisted with Indus civilisation during its florescence between and B. He may have been a grandson of Ashokaor Kunalathe son of Ashoka. It was run by British administrators, engineers and craftsmen. Thus, the year B. Jinnah of Pakistan Wolpert, Stanley"India:
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Silver punch mark coin of the Maurya empire, with symbols of wheel and elephant. Mauryan coin with arched hill symbol on reverse. Circa late 4th-2nd century BCE. Mauryan Empire, Emperor Salisuka or later.
Magadha, the centre of the empire, was also the birthplace of Buddhism. Ashoka initially practised Hinduism but later embraced Buddhism; following the Kalinga War, he renounced expansionism and aggression, and the harsher injunctions of the Arthashastra on the use of force, intensive policing, and ruthless measures for tax collection and against rebels.
Ashoka sent a mission led by his son Mahinda and daughter Sanghamitta to Sri Lanka, whose king Tissa was so charmed with Buddhist ideals that he adopted them himself and made Buddhism the state religion.
Ashoka sent many Buddhist missions to West Asia, Greece and South East Asia, and commissioned the construction of monasteries and schools, as well as the publication of Buddhist literature across the empire.
He is believed to have built as many as 84, stupas across India, such as Sanchi and Mahabodhi Temple, and he increased the popularity of Buddhism in Afghanistan, Thailand and North Asia including Siberia.
Ashoka helped convene the Third Buddhist Council of India's and South Asia's Buddhist orders near his capital, a council that undertook much work of reform and expansion of the Buddhist religion.
Indian merchants embraced Buddhism and played a large role in spreading the religion across the Mauryan Empire. Chandragupta Maurya embraced Jainism after retiring, when he renounced his throne and material possessions to join a wandering group of Jain monks.
Chandragupta was a disciple of the Jain monk Bhadrabahu. It is said that in his last days, he observed the rigorous but self-purifying Jain ritual of santhara fast unto death, at Shravana Belgola in Karnataka.
Samprati was influenced by the teachings of Jain monks and he is known to have built, derasars across India. Some of them are still found in the towns of Ahmedabad, Viramgam, Ujjain, and Palitana.
It is also said that just like Ashoka, Samprati sent messengers and preachers to Greece, Persia and the Middle East for the spread of Jainism, but, to date, no research has been done in this area.
Thus, Jainism became a vital force under the Mauryan Rule. Chandragupta and Samprati are credited for the spread of Jainism in South India. Hundreds of thousands of temples and stupas are said to have been erected during their reigns.
However, due to lack of royal patronage, its own strict principles, and the rise of Shankaracharya and Ramanuja, Jainism, once a major religion of southern India, began to decline.
The greatest monument of this period, executed in the reign of Chandragupta Maurya, was the old palace at the site of Kumhrar. Excavations at the site of Kumhrar nearby have unearthed the remains of the palace.
The palace is thought to have been an aggregate of buildings, the most important of which was an immense pillared hall supported on a high substratum of timbers. The pillars were set in regular rows, thus dividing the hall into a number of smaller square bays.
The number of columns is 80, each about 7 meters high. According to the eyewitness account of Megasthenes, the palace was chiefly constructed of timber, and was considered to exceed in splendour and magnificence the palaces of Susa and Ecbatana, its gilded pillars being adorned with golden vines and silver birds.
The buildings stood in an extensive park studded with fish ponds and furnished with a great variety of ornamental trees and shrubs. Later fragments of stone pillars, including one nearly complete, with their round tapering shafts and smooth polish, indicate that Ashoka was responsible for the construction of the stone columns which replaced the earlier wooden ones.
During the Ashokan period, stonework was of a highly diversified order and comprised lofty free-standing pillars, railings of stupas, lion thrones and other colossal figures.
The use of stone had reached such great perfection during this time that even small fragments of stone art were given a high lustrous polish resembling fine enamel. This period marked the beginning of the Buddhist school of architecture.
Ashoka was responsible for the construction of several stupas, which were large domes and bearing symbols of Buddha. The most widespread examples of Mauryan architecture are the Ashoka pillars and carved edicts of Ashoka, often exquisitely decorated, with more than 40 spread throughout the Indian subcontinent.
The peacock was a dynastic symbol of Mauryans, as depicted by Ashoka's pillars at Nandangarh and Sanchi Stupa. Remains of the Ashokan Pillar in polished stone, to the right of the Southern Gateway.
The Sanchi pillar capital of Ashoka as discovered left, and simulation of original appearance right. The protection of animals in India became serious business by the time of the Maurya dynasty; being the first empire to provide a unified political entity in India, the attitude of the Mauryas towards forests, their denizens, and fauna in general is of interest.
The Mauryas firstly looked at forests as resources. For them, the most important forest product was the elephant. Military might in those times depended not only upon horses and men but also battle-elephants; these played a role in the defeat of Seleucus, one of Alexander 's former generals.
The Mauryas sought to preserve supplies of elephants since it was cheaper and took less time to catch, tame and train wild elephants than to raise them. Kautilya 's Arthashastra contains not only maxims on ancient statecraft, but also unambiguously specifies the responsibilities of officials such as the Protector of the Elephant Forests.
On the border of the forest, he should establish a forest for elephants guarded by foresters. The Office of the Chief Elephant Forester should with the help of guards protect the elephants in any terrain.
The slaying of an elephant is punishable by death. The Mauryas also designated separate forests to protect supplies of timber, as well as lions and tigers for skins.
Elsewhere the Protector of Animals also worked to eliminate thieves, tigers and other predators to render the woods safe for grazing cattle. The Mauryas valued certain forest tracts in strategic or economic terms and instituted curbs and control measures over them.
They regarded all forest tribes with distrust and controlled them with bribery and political subjugation. They employed some of them, the food-gatherers or aranyaca to guard borders and trap animals.
The sometimes tense and conflict-ridden relationship nevertheless enabled the Mauryas to guard their vast empire. When Ashoka embraced Buddhism in the latter part of his reign, he brought about significant changes in his style of governance, which included providing protection to fauna, and even relinquished the royal hunt.
He was the first ruler in history [ not in citation given ] to advocate conservation measures for wildlife and even had rules inscribed in stone edicts.
The edicts proclaim that many followed the king's example in giving up the slaughter of animals; one of them proudly states: However, the edicts of Ashoka reflect more the desire of rulers than actual events; the mention of a 'panas' coins fine for poaching deer in royal hunting preserves shows that rule-breakers did exist.
The legal restrictions conflicted with the practices freely exercised by the common people in hunting, felling, fishing and setting fires in forests. Relations with the Hellenistic world may have started from the very beginning of the Maurya Empire.
Plutarch reports that Chandragupta Maurya met with Alexander the Great, probably around Taxila in the northwest:. Though no accounts of the conflict remain, it is clear that Seleucus fared poorly against the Indian Emperor as he failed to conquer any territory, and in fact was forced to surrender much that was already his.
It is generally thought that Chandragupta married Seleucus's daughter, or a Greek Macedonian princess, a gift from Seleucus to formalise an alliance. Mainstream scholarship asserts that Chandragupta received vast territory west of the Indus, including the Hindu Kush, modern-day Afghanistan, and the Balochistan province of Pakistan.
The treaty on " Epigamia " implies lawful marriage between Greeks and Indians was recognized at the State level, although it is unclear whether it occurred among dynastic rulers or common people, or both.
Classical sources have also recorded that following their treaty, Chandragupta and Seleucus exchanged presents, such as when Chandragupta sent various aphrodisiacs to Seleucus: The Greek population apparently remained in the northwest of the Indian subcontinent under Ashoka's rule.
In his Edicts of Ashoka, set in stone, some of them written in Greek, Ashoka relates that the Greek population within his realm was absorbed, integrated, and converted to Buddhism:.
Fragments of Edict 13 have been found in Greek, and a full Edict, written in both Greek and Aramaic, has been discovered in Kandahar. It is said to be written in excellent Classical Greek, using sophisticated philosophical terms.
Also, in the Edicts of Ashoka, Ashoka mentions the Hellenistic kings of the period as recipients of his Buddhist proselytism, although no Western historical record of this event remains:.
Ashoka also encouraged the development of herbal medicine, for men and animals, in their territories:. The Greeks in India even seem to have played an active role in the propagation of Buddhism, as some of the emissaries of Ashoka, such as Dharmaraksita, are described in Pali sources as leading Greek " Yona " Buddhist monks, active in Buddhist proselytism the Mahavamsa, XII [95] [ non-primary source needed ].
His name is mentioned in the list of Mauryan princes [ citation needed ] , and also in the list of the Yadava dynasty, as a descendant of Pradyumna. He may have been a grandson of Ashoka, or Kunala, the son of Ashoka.
He ruled an area south of the Hindu Kush, possibly in Gandhara. Punjab - Sapta Sindhu. Painted Grey Ware culture. Northern Black Polished Ware. Pandyan Kingdom Under Kalabhras. Pandyan Kingdom Under Cholas.
Chera Perumals of Makkotai. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. For the film, see Maurya film. This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page.
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Maurya Dynasty, c. Chalukya Dynasty, c. Delhi Sultanate, c. Mughal Dynasty, c. The Great Rebellion, c. Madrasian Culture Soanian Culture. Bronze Age — BC. Iron Age — BC.
Late medieval period — By Indians were numerically dominant in the ICS and at issue was loyal divided between the Empire and independence. Epstein argues that after it became harder and harder to collect the land revenue.
The Raj's suppression of civil disobedience after temporarily increased the power of the revenue agents but after they were forced by the new Congress-controlled provincial governments to hand back confiscated land.
Again the outbreak of war strengthened them, in the face of the Quit India movement the revenue collectors had to rely on military force and by —47 direct British control was rapidly disappearing in much of the countryside.
In, after the Round Table Conferences, Parliament passed the Government of India Act, which authorised the establishment of independent legislative assemblies in all provinces of British India, the creation of a central government incorporating both the British provinces and the princely states, and the protection of Muslim minorities.
The future Constitution of independent India was based on this act. A voter could cast a vote only for candidates in his own category. The Act provided for more autonomy for Indian provinces, with the goal of cooling off nationalist sentiment.
The act provided for a national parliament and an executive branch under the purview of the British government, but the rulers of the princely states managed to block its implementation.
These states remained under the full control of their hereditary rulers, with no popular government. To prepare for elections Congress built up its grass roots membership from, in to 4. In the elections Congress won victories in seven of the eleven provinces of British India.
The widespread voter support for the Indian National Congress surprised Raj officials, who previously had seen the Congress as a small elitist body. While the Muslim League was a small elite group in with only members, it grew rapidly once it became an organisation that reached out to the masses, reaching, members in Bengal in, , in Punjab, and hundreds of thousands elsewhere.
The Muslim League, in contrast, supported Britain in the war effort and maintained its control of the government in three major provinces, Bengal, Sind and the Punjab.
Jinnah repeatedly warned that Muslims would be unfairly treated in an independent India dominated by the Congress. On 24 March in Lahore, the League passed the " Lahore Resolution ", demanding that, "the areas in which the Muslims are numerically in majority as in the North-Western and Eastern zones of India should be grouped to constitute independent states in which the constituent units shall be autonomous and sovereign.
The Congress was secular and strongly opposed having any religious state. The Hindu and Muslim belong to two different religions, philosophies, social customs and literature [sic].
They neither intermarry nor interdine together and indeed they belong to two different civilizations which are based mainly on conflicting ideas and conceptions. Their aspects on life and of life are different To yoke together two such nations under a single state, one as a numerical minority and the other as a majority must lead to growing discontent and final destruction of any fabric that may be so built up for the government of such a state.
While the regular Indian army in included about, native troops, it expanded tenfold during the war [] and small naval and air force units were created. Over two million Indians volunteered for military service in the British Army.
They played a major role in numerous campaigns, especially in the Middle East and North Africa. Casualties were moderate in terms of the world war, with 24, killed; 64, wounded; 12, missing probably dead, and 60, captured at Singapore in London paid most of the cost of the Indian Army, which had the effect of erasing India's national debt.
Small warships were built, and an aircraft factory opened in Bangalore. The railway system, with, employees, was taxed to the limit as demand for transportation soared. The British government sent the Cripps' mission in to secure Indian nationalists' co-operation in the war effort in exchange for a promise of independence as soon as the war ended.
Top officials in Britain, most notably Prime Minister Winston Churchill, did not support the Cripps Mission and negotiations with the Congress soon broke down.
Congress launched the "Quit India" movement in July demanding the immediate withdrawal of the British from India or face nationwide civil disobedience. On 8 August the Raj arrested all national, provincial and local Congress leaders, holding tens of thousands of them until The country erupted in violent demonstrations led by students and later by peasant political groups, especially in Eastern United Provinces, Bihar, and western Bengal.
The large wartime British Army presence crushed the movement in a little more than six weeks; [] nonetheless, a portion of the movement formed for a time an underground provisional government on the border with Nepal.
It did not slow down the British war effort or recruiting for the army. Earlier, Subhas Chandra Bose, who had been a leader of the younger, radical, wing of the Indian National Congress in the late s and s, had risen to become Congress President from to As the war turned against them, the Japanese came to support a number of puppet and provisional governments in the captured regions, including those in Burma, the Philippines and Vietnam, and in addition, the Provisional Government of Azad Hind, presided by Bose.
Bose's effort, however, was short lived. In mid the British army first halted and then reversed the Japanese U-Go offensive, beginning the successful part of the Burma Campaign.
Bose's Indian National Army largely disintegrated during the subsequent fighting in Burma, with its remaining elements surrendering with the recapture of Singapore in September Bose died in August from third degree burns received after attempting to escape in an overloaded Japanese plane which crashed in Taiwan, [] which many Indians believe did not happen.
In January, a number of mutinies broke out in the armed services, starting with that of RAF servicemen frustrated with their slow repatriation to Britain.
Although the mutinies were rapidly suppressed, they had the effect of spurring the new Labour government in Britain to action, and leading to the Cabinet Mission to India led by the Secretary of State for India, Lord Pethick Lawrence, and including Sir Stafford Cripps, who had visited four years before.
Also in early, new elections were called in India. Earlier, at the end of the war in, the colonial government had announced the public trial of three senior officers of Bose's defeated Indian National Army who stood accused of treason.
Now as the trials began, the Congress leadership, although ambivalent towards the INA, chose to defend the accused officers. Jinnah proclaimed 16 August, Direct Action Day, with the stated goal of highlighting, peacefully, the demand for a Muslim homeland in British India.
The following day Hindu-Muslim riots broke out in Calcutta and quickly spread throughout British India. Although the Government of India and the Congress were both shaken by the course of events, in September, a Congress-led interim government was installed, with Jawaharlal Nehru as united India's prime minister.
Later that year, the Labour government in Britain, its exchequer exhausted by the recently concluded World War II, and conscious that it had neither the mandate at home, the international support, nor the reliability of native forces for continuing to control an increasingly restless British India, [].
Thus, Wavell concluded, if the army and the police "failed" Britain would be forced to go. In theory, it might be possible to revive and reinvigorate the services, and rule for another fifteen to twenty years, but:.
As independence approached, the violence between Hindus and Muslims in the provinces of Punjab and Bengal continued unabated. With the British army unprepared for the potential for increased violence, the new viceroy, Louis Mountbatten, advanced the date for the transfer of power, allowing less than six months for a mutually agreed plan for independence.
Ambedkar representing the Untouchable community, and Master Tara Singh representing the Sikhs, agreed to a partition of the country along religious lines in stark opposition to Gandhi's views.
This was done so that Mountbatten could attend both ceremonies. The great majority of Indians remained in place with independence, but in border areas millions of people Muslim, Sikh, and Hindu relocated across the newly drawn borders.
In Punjab, where the new border lines divided the Sikh regions in half, there was much bloodshed; in Bengal and Bihar, where Gandhi's presence assuaged communal tempers, the violence was more limited.
In all, somewhere between, and, people on both sides of the new borders, among both the refugee and resident populations of the three faiths, died in the violence. At independence and after the independence of India, India has maintained such central British institutions as parliamentary government, one-person, one-vote and the rule of law through nonpartisan courts.
One major change was the rejection of its former separate princely states. Metcalf shows that over the course of two centuries, British intellectuals and Indian specialists made the highest priority bringing peace, unity and good government to India.
For example, Cornwallis recommended turning Bengali Zamindar into the sort of English landlords that controlled local affairs in England. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Redirected from British Indian Empire.
This article is about the rule of the British Crown from to over the Indian subcontinent. For the previous rule of the East India Company which existed from to, see Company rule in India. For other uses of "British Rule", see British Rule disambiguation.
For other uses, see British India disambiguation. For other Indian empires, see History of India. Part of a series on the. Madrasian Culture Soanian, c.
Maurya Dynasty, c. Chalukya Dynasty, c. Delhi Sultanate, c. Mughal Dynasty, c. The Great Rebellion, c. Presidencies and provinces of British India. Madrasian Culture Soanian Culture.
Bronze Age — BC. Iron Age — BC. Late Medieval Period — Early Modern Period — Periods of Sri Lanka. Palaeolithic Soanian Culture, c. Parthian Empire, c. Durrani Empire, c.
Lord Salisbury was Secretary of State for India — History of the British Raj. A significant fact which stands out is that those parts of India which have been longest under British rule are the poorest today.
Indeed some kind of chart might be drawn up to indicate the close connection between length of British rule and progressive growth of poverty. Famines in British India. Lockard, Societies, Networks, and Transitions [].
This article duplicates the scope of other articles, specifically, Timeline of major famines in India during British rule. Please discuss this issue on the talk page and edit it to conform with Wikipedia's Manual of Style.
Major famines in India during British rule Famine Years Deaths [b] Great Bengal Famine — 10 [] Chalisa famine — 11 [] Doji bara famine — 11 [] Agra famine of —38 — 0. Gopal Krishna Gokhale, a constitutional social reformer and moderate nationalist, was elected president of the Indian National Congress in Congress "extremist" Bal Gangadhar Tilak speaking in as the party split into the Moderates and the Extremists.
Partition of Bengal and Swadeshi movement. He promoted many reforms but his partitioning of Bengal into Muslim and Hindu provinces outraged the people. Sir Khawaja Salimullah, an influential Bengali aristocrat and British ally, who strongly favoured the creation of Eastern Bengal and Assam.
Surendranath Banerjee, a Congress moderate, who led the opposition to the partition of Bengal with the Swadeshi movement to buy Indian-made cloth. Cover of a issue of the Tamil magazine Vijaya showing "Mother India" with her diverse progeny and the rallying cry " Vande Mataram ".
Lord Minto, the Conservative viceroy met with the Muslim delegation in June The Minto-Morley Reforms of called for separate Muslim electorates. Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi seated in carriage, on the right, eyes downcast, with black flat-top hat receives a big welcome in Karachi in after his return to India from South Africa.
Muhammad Ali Jinnah, seated, third from the left, was a supporter of the Lucknow Pact, which, in, ended the three-way rift between the Extremists, the Moderates and the League.
Mahatma Gandhi with Dr. Annie Besant en route to a meeting in Madras in September Earlier, in Madurai, on 21 September, Gandhi had adopted the loin-cloth for the first time as a symbol of his identification with India's poor.
An early s poster advertising a Congress non-co-operation "Public Meeting" and a "Bonfire of Foreign Clothes" in Bombay, and expressing support for the "Karachi Khilafat Conference.
Hindus and Muslims, displaying the flags of both the Indian National Congress and the Muslim League, collecting clothes to be later burnt as a part of the non-co-operation movement initiated by Gandhi.
Photograph of the staff and students of the National College, Lahore, founded in by Lala Lajpat Rai for students preparing for the non-co-operation movement. Standing, fourth from the right, is future revolutionary Bhagat Singh.
Allama Muhammad Iqbal, fifth from left, arriving at the session of the All India Muslim League, where he delivered his presidential address outlining his plan for a homeland for the Muslims of British India.
Foreground, fourth from left, is B. Ambedkar representing the " Depressed Classes. The Indian general election, was the first general election that the INC participated in.
The party won a majority of the general seats. A first-day cover issued on 1 April commemorating the separation of Burma from the British Indian Empire. Newly arrived Indian troops on the quayside in Singapore, November Interim Government of India.
British Empire portal India portal. In full British Raj. Direct rule in India by the British — ; this period of dominion. Company rule in India lasted effectively from the Battle of Plassey in until, when following the Indian Rebellion, the British Crown assumed direct colonial rule of India in the new British Raj.
Christine, Fighting to the End: Atlantic and Indian Ocean Worlds, C. His Majesty's Stationery Office, p. The British Raj in India —". Retrieved 3 March Retrieved 2 August A History of the Global Economy.
From to the Present. Retrieved 24 January Ilbert in his Government of India, into three periods. From the beginning of the seventeenth century to the middle of the eighteenth century the East India Company is a trading corporation, existing on the sufferance of the native powers and in rivalry with the merchant companies of Holland and France.
During the next century, the Company acquires and consolidates its dominion, shares its sovereignty in increasing proportions with the Crown, and gradually loses its mercantile privileges and functions.
After the mutiny of the remaining powers of the Company are transferred to the Crown, and then follows an era of peace in which India awakens to new life and progress.
The Geographical Construction of British India, — University of Chicago Press. II, pp. IV, p. A history of modern India, — Moore, "Imperial India, —", pp. Retrieved 21 February A life of the Earl of Mayo, fourth viceroy of India.
The viceroyalty of Lord Ripon, — The life of the Marquis of Dufferin and Ava. I, p. Lord Curzon in India: India under Morley and Minto: The Bengal army was completely recast The Brahmin element from Uttar Pradesh, the core of the original mutiny, was heavily reduced and its place taken by Gurkhas, Sikhs, and Punjabis.
Social History of Medicine. Africa and the Victorians: The Climax of Imperialism. Doubleday "Archived copy" PDF. Archived from the original PDF on 25 February Retrieved 15 February Canadian Studies in Population.
Institute of Pacific Relations. Indian Economic Social History Review. The demographic revolution," p. Humanities, June, 47 1 pp. British Moral Justification of Empire, —".
Reassessing the Historiography of Education in Colonial India". Historical Dictionary of Anglicanism. The Religions of India. Metropolis, India and Progress in the Colonial Imagination. The Future of Christian Mission in India.
Wipf and Stock Publishers. The growth of the army in India also led to many army chaplains. After the change in the Charter in, Anglican missionaries began to work across North India.
The missionaries translated the Book of Common Prayer into various Indian languages. The first Anglican diocese was Calcutta in, and bishops from India were at the first Lambeth conference.
In the Church of India, Burma and Ceylon became an independent Province and created its own Book of Common Prayer, which was translated into several languages. The three dioceses thus formed have been repeatedly subdivided, until in there were fourteen dioceses, the dates of their creation being as follows: The Oxford Handbook of Methodist Studies.
Christians and Missionaries in India: Race, Sexuality, and History in Anglo-India. The Cultural Heritage of India. Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture.
A Short World History of Christianity. Westminster John Knox Press. Tomlinson, The Economy of Modern India, — p. The World Economy Volumes 1—2. The Economic History Review. Headrick, The tentacles of progress: Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India.
In Kerr, Ian J. Railways in Modern India. Perspectives on Technological Change in a Peasant Economy pp. Imperial Lives in the Victorian Raj. Farrar, Straus and Giroux. Indian Railway workers, bureaucracy, and the intimate historical self — pp.
Tomlinson, The economy of modern India, — p. The Origins of an Asian Democracy p. Marshall, , pp. Marshall, "The British in Asia: Class Structure and Economic Growth: India and Pakistan Since the Moghuls.
Societies, Networks, and Transitions, Volume 3. III, p. Retrieved 29 April Plague Through History, sciencemag. Retrieved 15 June Archived from the original on 16 April Archived from the original on 5 March Archived from the original on 20 April Material Progress and World-Wide Problems, —98 contents pp.
Olson and Robert S. Shadle, Historical Dictionary of the British Empire p. Wolpert, Tilak and Gokhale: India under Curzon p. A Historical Survey Armonk: Sankaran Nair, Swadeshi movement: Potter, "Manpower Shortage and the End of Colonialism: The History of the World's Largest Democracy p.
The Idea of Pakistan. Major Shaukat Hayat Khan". Journal of Military History. The Indian Army — Experience and Development Farnham: Situated on rich alluvial soil and near mineral deposits, especially iron, Magadha was at the center of bustling commerce and trade.
The capital was a city of magnificent palaces, temples, a university, a library, gardens, and parks, as reported by Megasthenes, the third-century B. Greek historian and ambassador to the Mauryan court.
Legend states that Chandragupta's success was due in large measure to his adviser Kautilya, the Brahman author of the Arthashastra Science of Material Gain, a textbook that outlined governmental administration and political strategy.
There was a highly centralized and hierarchical government with a large staff, which regulated tax collection, trade and commerce, industrial arts, mining, vital statistics, welfare of foreigners, maintenance of public places including markets and temples, and prostitutes.
A large standing army and a well-developed espionage system were maintained. The empire was divided into provinces, districts, and villages governed by a host of centrally appointed local officials, who replicated the functions of the central administration.
Ashoka, grandson of Chandragupta, ruled from to B. Ashoka's inscriptions chiseled on rocks and stone pillars located at strategic locations throughout his empire--such as Lampaka Laghman in modern Afghanistan, Mahastan in modern Bangladesh, and Brahmagiri in Karnataka --constitute the second set of datable historical records.
According to some of the inscriptions, in the aftermath of the carnage resulting from his campaign against the powerful kingdom of Kalinga modern Orissa, Ashoka renounced bloodshed and pursued a policy of nonviolence or ahimsa, espousing a theory of rule by righteousness.
His toleration for different religious beliefs and languages reflected the realities of India's regional pluralism although he personally seems to have followed Buddhism. Early Buddhist stories assert that he convened a Buddhist council at his capital, regularly undertook tours within his realm, and sent Buddhist missionary ambassadors to Sri Lanka.
Contacts established with the Hellenistic world during the reign of Ashoka's predecessors served him well. He sent diplomatic-cum-religious missions to the rulers of Syria, Macedonia, and Epirus, who learned about India's religious traditions, especially Buddhism.
India's northwest retained many Persian cultural elements, which might explain Ashoka's rock inscriptions--such inscriptions were commonly associated with Persian rulers.
Ashoka's Greek and Aramaic inscriptions found in Kandahar in Afghanistan may also reveal his desire to maintain ties with people outside of India. After the disintegration of the Mauryan Empire in the second century B.
India's unguarded northwestern border again attracted a series of invaders between B. As the Aryans had done, the invaders became "Indianized" in the process of their conquest and settlement.
Also, this period witnessed remarkable intellectual and artistic achievements inspired by cultural diffusion and syncretism. The Indo-Greeks, or the Bactrians, of the northwest contributed to the development of numismatics ; they were followed by another group, the Shakas or Scythians, from the steppes of Central Asia, who settled in western India.
Still other nomadic people, the Yuezhi, who were forced out of the Inner Asian steppes of Mongolia, drove the Shakas out of northwestern India and established the Kushana Kingdom first century B.
For a short period, the kingdom reached still farther east, to Pataliputra. The Kushana Kingdom was the crucible of trade among the Indian, Persian, Chinese, and Roman empires and controlled a critical part of the legendary Silk Road.
Kanishka, who reigned for two decades starting around A. He converted to Buddhism and convened a great Buddhist council in Kashmir. The Kushanas were patrons of Gandharan art, a synthesis between Greek and Indian styles, and Sanskrit literature.
They initiated a new era called Shaka in A. The Satavahana, or Andhra, Kingdom was considerably influenced by the Mauryan political model, although power was decentralized in the hands of local chieftains, who used the symbols of Vedic religion and upheld the varnashramadharma.
The rulers, however, were eclectic and patronized Buddhist monuments, such as those in Ellora Maharashtra and Amaravati Andhra Pradesh. Thus, the Deccan served as a bridge through which politics, trade, and religious ideas could spread from the north to the south.
Farther south were three ancient Tamil kingdoms--Chera on the west, Chola on the east, and Pandya in the south --frequently involved in internecine warfare to gain regional supremacy.
They are mentioned in Greek and Ashokan sources as lying at the fringes of the Mauryan Empire. A corpus of ancient Tamil literature, known as Sangam academy works, including Tolkappiam, a manual of Tamil grammar by Tolkappiyar, provides much useful information about their social life from B.
There is clear evidence of encroachment by Aryan traditions from the north into a predominantly indigenous Dravidian culture in transition. Dravidian social order was based on different ecoregions rather than on the Aryan varna paradigm, although the Brahmans had a high status at a very early stage.
Segments of society were characterized by matriarchy and matrilineal succession--which survived well into the nineteenth century--cross-cousin marriage, and strong regional identity. Tribal chieftains emerged as "kings" just as people moved from pastoralism toward agriculture, sustained by irrigation based on rivers, small-scale tanks as man-made ponds are called in India and wells, and brisk maritime trade with Rome and Southeast Asia.
Discoveries of Roman gold coins in various sites attest to extensive South Indian links with the outside world. As with Pataliputra in the northeast and Taxila in the northwest in modern Pakistan, the city of Madurai, the Pandyan capital in modern Tamil Nadu, was the center of intellectual and literary activities.
Poets and bards assembled there under royal patronage at successive concourses and composed anthologies of poems, most of which have been lost. By the end of the first century B.
Because of the relative peace, law and order, and extensive cultural achievements during this period, it has been described as a "golden age" that crystallized the elements of what is generally known as Hindu culture with all its variety, contradiction, and synthesis.
The golden age was confined to the north, and the classical patterns began to spread south only after the Gupta Empire had vanished from the historical scene. The military exploits of the first three rulers--Chandragupta I ca.
From Pataliputra, their capital, they sought to retain political preeminence as much by pragmatism and judicious marriage alliances as by military strength. Despite their self-conferred titles, their overlordship was threatened and by ultimately ruined by the Hunas a branch of the White Huns emanating from Central Asia, who were yet another group in the long succession of ethnically and culturally different outsiders drawn into India and then woven into the hybrid Indian fabric.
Under Harsha Vardhana or Harsha, r. The Gupta period marked a watershed of Indian culture: The most significant achievements of this period, however, were in religion, education, mathematics, art, and Sanskrit literature and drama.
The religion that later developed into modern Hinduism witnessed a crystallization of its components: Education included grammar, composition, logic, metaphysics, mathematics, medicine, and astronomy.
These subjects became highly specialized and reached an advanced level. The Indian numeral system--sometimes erroneously attributed to the Arabs, who took it from India to Europe where it replaced the Roman system--and the decimal system are Indian inventions of this period.
Aryabhatta's expositions on astronomy in, moreover, gave calculations of the solar year and the shape and movement of astral bodies with remarkable accuracy. In medicine, Charaka and Sushruta wrote about a fully evolved system, resembling those of Hippocrates and Galen in Greece.
Although progress in physiology and biology was hindered by religious injunctions against contact with dead bodies, which discouraged dissection and anatomy, Indian physicians excelled in pharmacopoeia, caesarean section, bone setting, and skin grafting.
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The pillars were set in regular rows, thus dividing the hall into a number of smaller square bays. The number of columns is 80, each about 7 meters high. According to the eyewitness account of Megasthenes, the palace was chiefly constructed of timber, and was considered to exceed in splendour and magnificence the palaces of Susa and Ecbatana, its gilded pillars being adorned with golden vines and silver birds.
The buildings stood in an extensive park studded with fish ponds and furnished with a great variety of ornamental trees and shrubs. Later fragments of stone pillars, including one nearly complete, with their round tapering shafts and smooth polish, indicate that Ashoka was responsible for the construction of the stone columns which replaced the earlier wooden ones.
During the Ashokan period, stonework was of a highly diversified order and comprised lofty free-standing pillars, railings of stupas, lion thrones and other colossal figures.
The use of stone had reached such great perfection during this time that even small fragments of stone art were given a high lustrous polish resembling fine enamel. This period marked the beginning of the Buddhist school of architecture.
Ashoka was responsible for the construction of several stupas, which were large domes and bearing symbols of Buddha. The most widespread examples of Mauryan architecture are the Ashoka pillars and carved edicts of Ashoka, often exquisitely decorated, with more than 40 spread throughout the Indian subcontinent.
The peacock was a dynastic symbol of Mauryans, as depicted by Ashoka's pillars at Nandangarh and Sanchi Stupa. Remains of the Ashokan Pillar in polished stone, to the right of the Southern Gateway.
The Sanchi pillar capital of Ashoka as discovered left, and simulation of original appearance right. The protection of animals in India became serious business by the time of the Maurya dynasty; being the first empire to provide a unified political entity in India, the attitude of the Mauryas towards forests, their denizens, and fauna in general is of interest.
The Mauryas firstly looked at forests as resources. For them, the most important forest product was the elephant. Military might in those times depended not only upon horses and men but also battle-elephants; these played a role in the defeat of Seleucus, one of Alexander 's former generals.
The Mauryas sought to preserve supplies of elephants since it was cheaper and took less time to catch, tame and train wild elephants than to raise them. Kautilya 's Arthashastra contains not only maxims on ancient statecraft, but also unambiguously specifies the responsibilities of officials such as the Protector of the Elephant Forests.
On the border of the forest, he should establish a forest for elephants guarded by foresters. The Office of the Chief Elephant Forester should with the help of guards protect the elephants in any terrain.
The slaying of an elephant is punishable by death. The Mauryas also designated separate forests to protect supplies of timber, as well as lions and tigers for skins. Elsewhere the Protector of Animals also worked to eliminate thieves, tigers and other predators to render the woods safe for grazing cattle.
The Mauryas valued certain forest tracts in strategic or economic terms and instituted curbs and control measures over them. They regarded all forest tribes with distrust and controlled them with bribery and political subjugation.
They employed some of them, the food-gatherers or aranyaca to guard borders and trap animals. The sometimes tense and conflict-ridden relationship nevertheless enabled the Mauryas to guard their vast empire.
When Ashoka embraced Buddhism in the latter part of his reign, he brought about significant changes in his style of governance, which included providing protection to fauna, and even relinquished the royal hunt.
He was the first ruler in history [ not in citation given ] to advocate conservation measures for wildlife and even had rules inscribed in stone edicts. The edicts proclaim that many followed the king's example in giving up the slaughter of animals; one of them proudly states: However, the edicts of Ashoka reflect more the desire of rulers than actual events; the mention of a 'panas' coins fine for poaching deer in royal hunting preserves shows that rule-breakers did exist.
The legal restrictions conflicted with the practices freely exercised by the common people in hunting, felling, fishing and setting fires in forests. Relations with the Hellenistic world may have started from the very beginning of the Maurya Empire.
Plutarch reports that Chandragupta Maurya met with Alexander the Great, probably around Taxila in the northwest:. Though no accounts of the conflict remain, it is clear that Seleucus fared poorly against the Indian Emperor as he failed to conquer any territory, and in fact was forced to surrender much that was already his.
It is generally thought that Chandragupta married Seleucus's daughter, or a Greek Macedonian princess, a gift from Seleucus to formalise an alliance. Mainstream scholarship asserts that Chandragupta received vast territory west of the Indus, including the Hindu Kush, modern-day Afghanistan, and the Balochistan province of Pakistan.
The treaty on " Epigamia " implies lawful marriage between Greeks and Indians was recognized at the State level, although it is unclear whether it occurred among dynastic rulers or common people, or both.
Classical sources have also recorded that following their treaty, Chandragupta and Seleucus exchanged presents, such as when Chandragupta sent various aphrodisiacs to Seleucus: The Greek population apparently remained in the northwest of the Indian subcontinent under Ashoka's rule.
In his Edicts of Ashoka, set in stone, some of them written in Greek, Ashoka relates that the Greek population within his realm was absorbed, integrated, and converted to Buddhism:. Fragments of Edict 13 have been found in Greek, and a full Edict, written in both Greek and Aramaic, has been discovered in Kandahar.
It is said to be written in excellent Classical Greek, using sophisticated philosophical terms. Also, in the Edicts of Ashoka, Ashoka mentions the Hellenistic kings of the period as recipients of his Buddhist proselytism, although no Western historical record of this event remains:.
Ashoka also encouraged the development of herbal medicine, for men and animals, in their territories:. The Greeks in India even seem to have played an active role in the propagation of Buddhism, as some of the emissaries of Ashoka, such as Dharmaraksita, are described in Pali sources as leading Greek " Yona " Buddhist monks, active in Buddhist proselytism the Mahavamsa, XII [95] [ non-primary source needed ].
His name is mentioned in the list of Mauryan princes [ citation needed ] , and also in the list of the Yadava dynasty, as a descendant of Pradyumna. He may have been a grandson of Ashoka, or Kunala, the son of Ashoka.
He ruled an area south of the Hindu Kush, possibly in Gandhara. Punjab - Sapta Sindhu. Painted Grey Ware culture. Northern Black Polished Ware. Pandyan Kingdom Under Kalabhras.
Pandyan Kingdom Under Cholas. Chera Perumals of Makkotai. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. For the film, see Maurya film. This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page.
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Madrasian Culture Soanian, c. Maurya Dynasty, c. Chalukya Dynasty, c. Delhi Sultanate, c. Mughal Dynasty, c. The Great Rebellion, c. Madrasian Culture Soanian Culture.
Bronze Age — BC. Iron Age — BC. Late medieval period — Early modern period — Periods of Sri Lanka. Chanakya and Chandragupta Maurya. List of Mauryan rulers. Chandragupta Maurya, Nanda Dynasty, and Magadha.
Economic history of India and Coinage of India. Edicts of Ashoka, Sanchi Stupa, and Mauryan art. Remains of the shaft of the pillar of Ashoka, under a shed near the Southern Gateway.
Journal of world-systems research. Retrieved 16 September A History of India, Volume 1. Aria modern Herat "has been wrongly included in the list of ceded satrapies by some scholars [ But in the belt of land on either side of the Nerbudda, the Godavari and the upper Mahanadi there were, in all probability, certain areas that were technically outside the limits of the empire proper.
Ashoka evidently draws a distinction between the forests and the inhabiting tribes which are in the dominions vijita and peoples on the border anta avijita for whose benefit some of the special edicts were issued.
Certain vassal tribes are specifically mentioned. The First Great Political Realist: Kautilya and His Arthashastra. Nonetheless, "though a comparatively late work, it may be used [ Between the Patterns of History: Quippe cum procacitate sua Nandrum regem offendisset, interfici a rege iussus salutem pedum ceieritate quaesierat.
Ex qua fatigatione cum somno captus iaceret, leo ingentis formae ad dormientem accessit sudoremque profluentem lingua ei detersit expergefactumque blande reliquit. Hoc prodigio primum ad spem regni inpulsus contractis latronibus Indos ad nouitatem regni sollicitauit.
Kosmin, p. In the parks, tame peacocks and pheasants are kept. The underlying belief is that present happiness and future salvation are contingent upon one's ethical or moral conduct; therefore, both society and individuals are expected to pursue a diverse but righteous path deemed appropriate for everyone based on one's birth, age, and station in life.
The original three-tiered society--Brahman priest, Kshatriya warrior, and Vaishya commoner --eventually expanded into four in order to absorb the subjugated people--Shudra servant --or even five, when the outcaste peoples are considered.
The basic unit of Aryan society was the extended and patriarchal family. A cluster of related families constituted a village, while several villages formed a tribal unit.
Child marriage, as practiced in later eras, was uncommon, but the partners' involvement in the selection of a mate and dowry and bride-price were customary. The birth of a son was welcome because he could later tend the herds, bring honor in battle, offer sacrifices to the gods, and inherit property and pass on the family name.
Monogamy was widely accepted although polygamy was not unknown, and even polyandry is mentioned in later writings. Ritual suicide of widows was expected at a husband's death, and this might have been the beginning of the practice known as sati in later centuries, when the widow actually burnt herself on her husband's funeral pyre.
Permanent settlements and agriculture led to trade and other occupational differentiation. As lands along the Ganga or Ganges were cleared, the river became a trade route, the numerous settlements on its banks acting as markets.
Trade was restricted initially to local areas, and barter was an essential component of trade, cattle being the unit of value in large-scale transactions, which further limited the geographical reach of the trader.
Custom was law, and kings and chief priests were the arbiters, perhaps advised by certain elders of the community. An Aryan raja, or king, was primarily a military leader, who took a share from the booty after successful cattle raids or battles.
Although the rajas had managed to assert their authority, they scrupulously avoided conflicts with priests as a group, whose knowledge and austere religious life surpassed others in the community, and the rajas compromised their own interests with those of the priests.
From their original settlements in the Punjab region, the Aryans gradually began to penetrate eastward, clearing dense forests and establishing "tribal" settlements along the Ganga and Yamuna Jamuna plains between and ca.
By around B. As riverine and inland trade flourished, many towns along the Ganga became centers of trade, culture, and luxurious living. Increasing population and surplus production provided the bases for the emergence of independent states with fluid territorial boundaries over which disputes frequently arose.
The rudimentary administrative system headed by tribal chieftains was transformed by a number of regional republics or hereditary monarchies that devised ways to appropriate revenue and to conscript labor for expanding the areas of settlement and agriculture farther east and south, beyond the Narmada River.
These emergent states collected revenue through officials, maintained armies, and built new cities and highways. The right of a king to his throne, no matter how it was gained, was usually legitimized through elaborate sacrifice rituals and genealogies concocted by priests who ascribed to the king divine or superhuman origins.
The victory of good over evil is epitomized in the epic Ramayana The Travels of Rama, or Ram in the preferred modern form, while another epic, Mahabharata Great Battle of the Descendants of Bharata, spells out the concept of dharma and duty.
More than 2, years later, Mohandas Karamchand Mahatma Gandhi, the father of modern India, used these concepts in the fight for independence. The Mahabharata records the feud between Aryan cousins that culminated in an epic battle in which both gods and mortals from many lands allegedly fought to the death, and the Ramayana recounts the kidnapping of Sita, Rama's wife, by Ravana, a demonic king of Lanka Sri Lanka, her rescue by her husband aided by his animal allies, and Rama's coronation, leading to a period of prosperity and justice.
In the late twentieth century, these epics remain dear to the hearts of Hindus and are commonly read and enacted in many settings. In the s and s, Ram's story has been exploited by Hindu militants and politicians to gain power, and the much disputed Ramjanmabhumi, the birth site of Ram, has become an extremely sensitive communal issue, potentially pitting Hindu majority against Muslim minority.
By the end of the sixth century B. This integration marked the beginning of administrative contacts between Central Asia and India. Thus, the year B. A two-way cultural fusion between several Indo-Greek elements--especially in art, architecture, and coinage --occurred in the next several hundred years.
North India's political landscape was transformed by the emergence of Magadha in the eastern Indo-Gangetic Plain. Chandragupta, who ruled from to B. Situated on rich alluvial soil and near mineral deposits, especially iron, Magadha was at the center of bustling commerce and trade.
The capital was a city of magnificent palaces, temples, a university, a library, gardens, and parks, as reported by Megasthenes, the third-century B. Greek historian and ambassador to the Mauryan court.
Legend states that Chandragupta's success was due in large measure to his adviser Kautilya, the Brahman author of the Arthashastra Science of Material Gain, a textbook that outlined governmental administration and political strategy.
There was a highly centralized and hierarchical government with a large staff, which regulated tax collection, trade and commerce, industrial arts, mining, vital statistics, welfare of foreigners, maintenance of public places including markets and temples, and prostitutes.
A large standing army and a well-developed espionage system were maintained. The empire was divided into provinces, districts, and villages governed by a host of centrally appointed local officials, who replicated the functions of the central administration.
Ashoka, grandson of Chandragupta, ruled from to B. Ashoka's inscriptions chiseled on rocks and stone pillars located at strategic locations throughout his empire--such as Lampaka Laghman in modern Afghanistan, Mahastan in modern Bangladesh, and Brahmagiri in Karnataka --constitute the second set of datable historical records.
According to some of the inscriptions, in the aftermath of the carnage resulting from his campaign against the powerful kingdom of Kalinga modern Orissa, Ashoka renounced bloodshed and pursued a policy of nonviolence or ahimsa, espousing a theory of rule by righteousness.
His toleration for different religious beliefs and languages reflected the realities of India's regional pluralism although he personally seems to have followed Buddhism.
Early Buddhist stories assert that he convened a Buddhist council at his capital, regularly undertook tours within his realm, and sent Buddhist missionary ambassadors to Sri Lanka.
Contacts established with the Hellenistic world during the reign of Ashoka's predecessors served him well. He sent diplomatic-cum-religious missions to the rulers of Syria, Macedonia, and Epirus, who learned about India's religious traditions, especially Buddhism.
India's northwest retained many Persian cultural elements, which might explain Ashoka's rock inscriptions--such inscriptions were commonly associated with Persian rulers. Ashoka's Greek and Aramaic inscriptions found in Kandahar in Afghanistan may also reveal his desire to maintain ties with people outside of India.
After the disintegration of the Mauryan Empire in the second century B. India's unguarded northwestern border again attracted a series of invaders between B. As the Aryans had done, the invaders became "Indianized" in the process of their conquest and settlement.
Also, this period witnessed remarkable intellectual and artistic achievements inspired by cultural diffusion and syncretism. The Indo-Greeks, or the Bactrians, of the northwest contributed to the development of numismatics ; they were followed by another group, the Shakas or Scythians, from the steppes of Central Asia, who settled in western India.
Still other nomadic people, the Yuezhi, who were forced out of the Inner Asian steppes of Mongolia, drove the Shakas out of northwestern India and established the Kushana Kingdom first century B.
For a short period, the kingdom reached still farther east, to Pataliputra. The Kushana Kingdom was the crucible of trade among the Indian, Persian, Chinese, and Roman empires and controlled a critical part of the legendary Silk Road.
Kanishka, who reigned for two decades starting around A. Aside from ongoing strategic relations with Russia, India has wide-ranging defence relations with Israel and France.
The nation has provided, military and police personnel to serve in 35 UN peacekeeping operations across four continents. China's nuclear test of, as well as its repeated threats to intervene in support of Pakistan in the war, convinced India to develop nuclear weapons.
Despite criticism and military sanctions, India has signed neither the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty nor the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, considering both to be flawed and discriminatory.
Since the end of the Cold War, India has increased its economic, strategic, and military co-operation with the United States and the European Union. Although India possessed nuclear weapons at the time and was not party to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, it received waivers from the International Atomic Energy Agency and the Nuclear Suppliers Group, ending earlier restrictions on India's nuclear technology and commerce.
As a consequence, India became the sixth de facto nuclear weapons state. The President of India is the supreme commander of the nation's armed forces; with 1. Widespread state intervention and regulation largely walled the economy off from the outside world.
An acute balance of payments crisis in forced the nation to liberalise its economy ; [] since then it has slowly moved towards a free-market system [] [] by emphasising both foreign trade and direct investment inflows.
Averaging an economic growth rate of 7. However, it is higher than Pakistan, Nepal, Afghanistan, Bangladesh and others. According to the Worldwide Cost of Living Report released by the Economist Intelligence Unit EIU which was created by comparing more than individual prices across products and services, four of the cheapest cities were in India: Bangalore 3rd, Mumbai 5th, Chennai 5th and New Delhi 8th.
India's telecommunication industry, the world's fastest-growing, added million subscribers during the period —11, [] and after the third quarter of, India surpassed the US to become the second largest smartphone market in the world after China.
The pharmaceutical industry in India is among the significant emerging markets for the global pharmaceutical industry. Despite economic growth during recent decades, India continues to face socio-economic challenges.
According to a Walk Free Foundation report in, there were an estimated Since, economic inequality between India's states has consistently grown: According to Corruption Perceptions Index, India ranked 76th out of countries in, from 85th in With 1,,, residents reported in the provisional census report, [] India is the world's second-most populous country.
Its population grew by Life expectancy in India is at 68 years, with life expectancy for women being The slowing down of the overall growth rate of population was due to the sharp decline in the growth rate in rural areas since The improvement in literacy rate in rural area is two times that in urban areas.
India is home to two major language families: Other languages spoken in India come from the Austroasiatic and Sino-Tibetan language families. India has no national language.
Each state and union territory has one or more official languages, and the constitution recognises in particular 22 "scheduled languages". The Constitution of India recognises scheduled tribal groups which together constitute about 7.
Indian cultural history spans more than 4, years. Much of Indian architecture, including the Taj Mahal, other works of Mughal architecture, and South Indian architecture, blends ancient local traditions with imported styles.
Vastu shastra, literally "science of construction" or "architecture" and ascribed to Mamuni Mayan, [] explores how the laws of nature affect human dwellings; [] it employs precise geometry and directional alignments to reflect perceived cosmic constructs.
This period was characterised by a varied and wide spectrum of thought and expression; as a consequence, medieval Indian literary works differed significantly from classical traditions.
In the 20th century, Indian literature was influenced by the works of Bengali poet and novelist Rabindranath Tagore, [] who was a recipient of the Nobel Prize in Literature. Indian music ranges over various traditions and regional styles.
Classical music encompasses two genres and their various folk offshoots: Indian dance also features diverse folk and classical forms. Among the better-known folk dances are the bhangra of Punjab, the bihu of Assam, the chhau of Odisha, West Bengal and Jharkhand, garba and dandiya of Gujarat, ghoomar of Rajasthan, and the lavani of Maharashtra.
Eight dance forms, many with narrative forms and mythological elements, have been accorded classical dance status by India's National Academy of Music, Dance, and Drama. The Indian film industry produces the world's most-watched cinema.
Television broadcasting began in India in as a state-run medium of communication and had slow expansion for more than two decades. Indian cuisine encompasses a wide variety of regional and traditional cuisines, often depending on a particular state such as Maharashtrian cuisine.
Lentils may be used whole, dehusked—for example, dhuli moong or dhuli urad —or split. Split lentils, or dal, are used extensively. Traditional Indian society is sometimes defined by social hierarchy.
The Indian caste system embodies much of the social stratification and many of the social restrictions found in the Indian subcontinent. At the workplace in urban India and in international or leading Indian companies, the caste related identification has pretty much lost its importance.
Family values are important in the Indian tradition, and multi-generational patriarchal joint families have been the norm in India, though nuclear families are becoming common in urban areas.
Many Indian festivals are religious in origin. Other sets of holidays, varying between nine and twelve, are officially observed in individual states. Cotton was domesticated in India by BCE.
Traditional Indian dress varies in colour and style across regions and depends on various factors, including climate and faith. Popular styles of dress include draped garments such as the sari for women and the dhoti or lungi for men.
Stitched clothes, such as the shalwar kameez for women and kurta — pyjama combinations or European-style trousers and shirts for men, are also popular. In India, several traditional indigenous sports remain fairly popular, such as kabaddi, kho kho, pehlwani and gilli-danda.
Some of the earliest forms of Asian martial arts, such as kalarippayattu, musti yuddha, silambam, and marma adi, originated in India. The improved results garnered by the Indian Davis Cup team and other Indian tennis players in the early s have made tennis increasingly popular in the country.
Field hockey in India is administered by Hockey India. The Indian national hockey team won the Hockey World Cup and have, as of [update] , taken eight gold, one silver, and two bronze Olympic medals, making it the sport's most successful team in the Olympics.
India has also played a major role in popularising cricket. Thus, cricket is, by far, the most popular sport in India. India has hosted or co-hosted several international sporting events: The first Formula 1 Indian Grand Prix featured in late but has been discontinued from the F1 season calendar since India has traditionally been the dominant country at the South Asian Games.
An example of this dominance is the basketball competition where Team India won three out of four tournaments to date. The Rajiv Gandhi Khel Ratna and the Arjuna Award are the highest forms of government recognition for athletic achievement; the Dronacharya Award is awarded for excellence in coaching.
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. This article is about the Republic of India. For other uses, see India disambiguation. Area controlled by India shown in dark green; claimed but uncontrolled regions shown in light green.
Hindi English [b] [6]. State level and Eighth Schedule [7]. History of India and History of the Republic of India. Government of India and Constitution of India.
Administrative divisions of India. Political integration of India. Foreign relations of India and Indian Armed Forces. Economic History of India and Economic development in India.
Milk is India's largest crop by economic value. Worldwide, as of, India had the largest herds of buffalo and cattle, and was the largest producer of milk. Textile industry in India. Languages of India and Religion in India.
Music of India and Dance in India. Cinema of India and Television in India. India portal Asia portal. English is an additional official language for government work alongside Hindi. However, this is disputed, and the region bordering Afghanistan is administered by Pakistan.
Archived from the original PDF on 17 March Retrieved 1 September Mesopotamia and Egypt were longer-lived, but coexisted with Indus civilisation during its florescence between and B.
Of the three, the Indus was the most expansive, extending from today's northeast Afghanistan to Pakistan and India. Archived from the original on 4 February Retrieved 1 March Archived from the original on 30 August Retrieved 23 August National Informatics Centre in Hindi.
Archived from the original on 8 November Retrieved 1 December Archived from the original PDF on 8 July Retrieved 26 December The Times of India. Archived from the original on 18 March Retrieved 5 May India doesn't have any 'national language ' ".
Archived from the original on 10 October Archived from the original on 4 July Retrieved 23 December
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